Abstract
This paper investigates gender and gender role differences in smiling and in communication consistency across verbal and facial channels. College students' conversations about their emotional experiences were analyzed for smiling frequency and duration, and verbal transcripts were rated for degree of positivity. Students also filled out a gender role questionnaire. Women smiled more than men, especially where discussing happy/positive topics compared to sad/negative topics. Masculinity interacted with gender to influence smiling behavior, but gender roles could not account for the gender differences in smiling. Gender differences in communication consistency also appeared; women were more consistent across channels than men were. Gender roles could not account for the gender differences in channel usage. A situational role interpretation is generated for future research.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Beakel, N. G., & Mehrabian, A. Inconsistent communications and psychopathology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 1969, 74, 126–130.
Bugental, D. E., Love, L. R., & Gianetto, R. M. Perfidious feminine faces. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1971, 17, 314–318.
Bugental, D. E., Kaswan, J. W., & Love, L. R. Perception of contradictory meanings conveyed by verbal and nonverbal channels. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1970, 16, 645–655.
Deaux, K. From individual differences to social categories: Analysis of a decade's research on gender. American Psychologist, 1974, 39, 105–116.
Deutsch, F. M., LeBaron, D., & Fryer, M. M. What is in a smile? Psychology of Women Quarterly, 1987, 11, 341–351.
Duncan, S., Jr., & Fiske, D. W. Face-to-face interaction: Research, methods, and theory. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1977.
Forgas, J. P. Social episodes: The study of interaction routines. New York: Academic Press, 1979.
Frances, S. J. Sex differences in nonverbal behavior. Sex Roles, 1979, 5, 519–535.
Green, B. F., Jr., & Tukey, J. W. (1960). Compex analyses of variance: General problems. Psychometrika, 1960, 25, 127–152.
Halberstadt, A. G. Family expression of emotion. In C. Z. Malatesta & C. E. Izard (Eds.), Emotion in adult development. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1984.
Halberstadt, A. G. Family socialization of emotional expression and nonverbal communication styles and skills. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1986, 51, 827–836.
Halberstadt, A. G., & Saitta, M. B. Gender, nonverbal behavior, and dominance: A test of the theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1987, 53, 257–272.
Hall, J. A. Gender, gender roles, and nonverbal communication: Individual differences. In R. Rosenthal (Ed.), Skill in nonverbal communication: Indivudal differences. Cambridge, MA: Oelgeschlager, Gunn, & Hain, 1979.
Hall, J. A. Nonverbal sex differences: Communication accuracy and expressive style. Baltimore. MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1984.
Hall, J. A., & Braunwald, K. G. (1981). Gender cues in conversation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1981, 40, 99–110.
Hall, J. A., & Halberstadt, A. G. Sex roles and nonverbal communication skills. Sex Roles, 1981, 7, 273–287.
Hall, J. A., & Halberstadt, A. G. Smiling and gazing. In J. S. Hyde & M. Linn (Eds.), The psychology of gender: Advances through meta-analysis. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986.
Hall, J. A., Mroz, B. J., & Braunwald, K. G. Expressions of affect and locus of control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1983, 45, 156–162.
Hall, J. A., Roter, D. L., & Rand, C. S. Communication of affect between patient and physician. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 1981, 22, 18–30.
Henley, N. M., & LaFrance, M. Gender as culture: Difference and dominance in nonverbal behavior. In A. Wolfgang (Ed.), Nonverbal behavior: Perspectives, applications, intercultural insights. Toronto: University of Toronto, 1984.
Jacob, T., Ritchey, D., Cvitkovic, J. F., & Blane, H. T. Communication styles of alcoholic and nonalcoholic familes when drinking and not drinking. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 1981, 42, 466–482.
LaFrance, M., & Carmen, B. The nonverbal display of psychological androgyny. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1980, 38, 36–49.
LaFrance, M., & Mayo, C. A review of nonverbal behaviors of women and men. The Western Journal of Speech Communication, 1979, 43, 96–107.
Lessin, S., & Jacob, T. Verbal-nonverbal congruence in normal and delinquent families. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 1979, 35, 391–395.
Lessin, S., & Jacob, T. Multichannel communication in normal and delinquent families. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 1984, 12, 369–384.
Lochman, J. E., & Allen, G. Nonverbal communication of couples in conflict. Journal of Research in Personality, 1981, 15, 253–269.
Lubinski, D., Tellegen, A., & Butcher, J. N. Masculinity, femininity, and androgyny viewed and assessed as distinct concepts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1983, 44, 428–439.
Mednick, M. T., Hillabrant, W., & Carr, P. Perfidious feminine faces revisited: Are women's smiles more enigmatic than men's? Unpublished manuscript, Howard University, Washington, DC, 1987.
Mehrabian, A. Nonverbal betrayal of feelings. Journal of Experimental Research in Personality, 1971, 5, 64–73.
Noller, P. Channel consistency and inconsistency in the communications of married couples. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1982, 43, 732–741.
Noller, P. Nonverbal communication and marital interaction. Oxford, Pergamon Press, 1984.
Shrout, P. E., & Fiske, D. W. Nonverbal behaviors and social evaluation. Journal of Personality, 1981, 49, 115–128.
Spence, J. T. Comment on Lubinski, Tellegen, and Butcher's Masculinity, femininity, and androgyny viewed and assessed as distinct concepts.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1983, 44, 440–446.
Spence, J. T. Gender identity and its implications for the concepts of masculinity and femininity. In Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 1984: Psychology and gender, Vol. 32.
Spence, J. T., & Helmreich, R. L. Masculinity and femininity: Their psychological dimensions, correlates, and antecedents. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1978.
Spence, J. T., Helmreich, R. L., & Stapp, J. The Personal Attributes Questionnaire: A measure of sex-role stereotypes and masculinity-femininity. JSAS Catalogue of Selected Documents in Psychology, 1974, 43, (Ms. No. 617).
Taylor, M. C., & Hall, J. A. Psychological androgyny: Theories, methods, and conclusions. Psychological Bulletin, 1982, 92, 347–366.
Weitz, S. Sex differences in nonverbal communication. Sex Roles, 1976, 2, 175–184.
Woolfolk, A. Student learning and performance under varying conditions of teacher verbal and nonverbal evaluative communication. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1978, 70, 87–94.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Halberstadt, A.G., Hayes, C.W. & Pike, K.M. Gender and gender role differences in smiling and communication consistency. Sex Roles 19, 589–604 (1988). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00289738
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00289738