Summary
The question of whether host immune factors play a protective role in breast cancer has been long debated. Early evidence based predominantly on histopathologic changes seen in ipsolateral axillary lymph nodes was suggestive. More recently, the availability of quantitative in vivo and in vitro tests of cellular and humoral immunity in breast cancer has given further support to this concept. A number of attempts have utilized both active and passive techniques of immunotherapy, with or without cytoreductive chemotherapy, to combat the disease. This review summarizes the literature pertaining to immunology and immunotherapy of breast cancer with the hope that such knowledge may lead to further improvements in our skill in the treatment of human breast cancer.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alford, C., Hollinshead, A. C., Herberman, R. B.: Delayed cutaneous hypersensitivity reactions to extracts of malignant and normal human breast cells. Ann. Surg. 178, 20 (1973)
Anastassiades, O. T., Pryce, D. M.: Immunological significance of the morphoogical changes in lymph nodes draining breast cancer. Brit. J. Cancer 20, 239 (1966)
Anderson, J. M.: Six-year study of autografts of irradiated tumour adjuvant to mastectomy and radiotherapy for cancer of the breast. Pan. Med. 17, 179 (1975)
Anderson, J. M., Kelly, F., Woods, S. E., Rodger, K. D., Freshney, R. I.: Evaluation of leucocyte functions 6 years after tumour autograft in human mammary cancer. Brit. J. Cancer Suppl. I, 28, 83 (1973)
Anderson, J. M., Kelly, F., Wood, S. E., Halnan, K. E.: Stimulatory immunotherapy in mammary cancer. Brit. J. Surg. 61, 778 (1974)
Asada, T.: Treatment of human cancer with mumps virus. Cancer 34, 1907 (1974)
Avis, F., Avis, I., Newsome, J. F., Haughton, G.: Antigenic cross-reactivity between adenocarcinoma of the breast and fibrocystic disease of the breast. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 56, 17 (1976)
Baldwin, R. W., Embillion, M. J., Jones, J. S. P., Langman, M. J. S.: Cell-mediated and humoral immune reactions to human tumours. Int. J. Cancer 12, 73 (1973)
Band, P. K., Jao-King, C., Urtasun, R., Haraphongse, M.: A phase I study of intravenous C. Parvum in solid tumours. Proc. Amer. Assoc. Cancer Res. 16, 9 (1975)
Baum, M.: Effect of administered hormones on the immune reaction. In: Host Defence in Breast Cancer. p. 130. Chicago: Year Book Medical Publishers, Inc. 1974
Berenbaum, M. C.: Effects of cytotoxic drugs and ionizing radiation on immune responses. In: Host Defence in Breast Cancer. p. 47. Chicago: Year Book Medical Publishers, Inc. 1974
Berg, J. W.: Sinus histiocytosis: fallacious measure of host resistance to cancer. Cancer 9, 935 (1956)
Berg, J. W.: Inflammation and prognosis in breast cancer: A search for host resistance. Cancer 12, 714 (1959)
Berg, J. W.: Active host resistance to breast cancer. Acta. Un. Int. Cancer 18, 823 (1963)
Berg, J. W.: Morphological evidence for immune response to breast cancer. Cancer 28, 1453 (1971)
Black, M. M.: Human breast cancer: a model for cancer immunology. Israel J. Med. Sci. 9, 284 (1973)
Black, M. M., Kerpe, S., Speer, F. D.: Lymph node structure in patients with cancer of the breast. Amer. J. Path. 29, 505 (1953)
Black, M. M., Oplier, S. R., Speer, F. D.: Survival in breast cancer cases in relation to the sructure of the primary tumor and regional lymph nodes. Surg. Gyn. Obst. 100, 543 (1955)
Black, M. M., Leis, H. P., Jr.: Cellular responses to autologous breast cancer tissue: sequential observations. Cancer 32, 384 (1973a)
Black, M. M., Leis, H. P., Jr., Shore, B., Zachrau, R. E.: Cellular hypersensitivity to breast cancer: assessment by a leukocyte migration procedure. Cancer 33, 952 (1974)
Bloom, H. J. G., Richardson, W. W., Fields, J. R.: Host resistance and survival in carcinoma in a series of 1,411 cases of breast cancer followed for 20 years. Brit. Med. J. 3, 181 (1970)
Bolton, P. M., Mander, A. M., Davidson, J. M., James, S. L., Newcombe, R. G., Hughes, L. E.: Cellular immunity in cancer: comparison of delayed hypersensitivity skin tests in three common cancers. Brit. J. Med. 3, 18 (1975)
Bond, W. H.: Natural history of breast cancer. In: Host Defence in Breast Cancer. p. 95. Chicago: Year Book Medical Publishers, Inc. 1974
Brandes, L. J., Goldenberg, G. J.: Peripheral leukocyte migration inhibition reactivity to breast cancer antigens in patients with breast cancer and in normal controls. Cancer Res. 36, 3707 (1976)
Brickley, R. J., Schiff, R. K., Amos, B. D.: Blocking of autologous and homologous leukocyte responses by human alloimmune plasma: a possible in vitro correlate of enhancement. J. Immunol. 108, 34 (1972)
Canevari, S., Fossati, G., Della Porta, G.: Cellular immune reaction to human malignant melanoma and breast carcinoma cells. J. nat. Cancer Inst. 56, 705 (1976)
Chan, S. P., Maca, R. D., Levine, P. H., Ting, R. C.: Immunologic studies of human breast cancer. 1) serum reactivity against a lymphoid cell line (Belev) derived from a breast cancer patient as detected by complementfixation test. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 47, 511 (1971)
Chu, T. M.: Evaluation of carcinoembryonic antigen in human mammary carcinoma. J. nat. Cancer Inst. 51, 1119 (1973)
Churchill, W. H., Rocklin, R. S.: Studies on the detection of cellular immunity to human tumors by inhibition of macrophage migration. Natl. Cancer Inst. Mono. 37, 135 (1973)
Cochran, A. J., Grant, R. M., Ross, C. E., Hoyle, D. E., Russell, J. M.: Sensitization to tumor-associated antigens in human breast cancer. Int. J. Cancer 14, 19 (1974)
Coombes, R. C., Easty, G. C., Petre, S. I., Hillyard, C. J., Stevens, U., Curgis, S. I., Galante, L. S., Haywood, L., MacIntyre, I., Neville, A. M.: Secretions of immunoreactive calcitonin by human breast carcinoma. Brit. Med. J. 4, 197 (1975)
Cosimi, A. B., Brunstetter, F. H., Kemmerer, M., Miller, B. N.: Cellular immune competence of breast cancer patients receiving radiotherapy. Arch. Surg. 107, 531 (1973)
Cunningham, T. J., Daut, D., Wolfgang, P. E., Mellyn, M., Maciolek, S., Sponzo, R. W., Horton, J.: A correlation of DNCB-induced delayed cutaneous hypersensitivity reactions and the course of disease in patients with recurrent breast cancer. Cancer 37, 1696–1700 (1976)
Cunningham, T. J., Olson, K. B., Laffin, R., Horton, J., Sullivan, J.: Treatment of advanced cancer with active immunization. Cancer 24, 932 (1969)
Dean, J. H., McCoy, J. L., Cannon, G. B., Leonard, C. M., Perlin, E., Kreutner, A., Oldham, R. K., Herberman, R. B.: Cell-mediated immune responses of breast cancer patients to autologous tumor-associated antigens. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 58, 549 (1977)
DeJager, R., Pinsky, C., Kaufman, R., Ochoa, M., Oettgen, H., Krakoff, I.: Chemotherapy of advanced breast cancer with a combination of Cyclophosphamide, Adriamycin, Methotrexate and 5-Flourouracil (CAMF) with and without C. Parvum. Proc. ASCO 17, 296 (1976)
Deodhar, S. D., Crile, G., Jr., Esselstyn, C. B., Jr.: Study of the tumor cell lymphocyte interaction in patients with breast cancer. Cancer 29, 1321 (1972)
DiRe, J. J., Lane, N.: The relation of sinus histiocytosis in axillary lymph nodes to surgical curability of carcinoma of the breast. Amer. J. Clin. Path. 40, 508 (1963)
Edynak, E. M., Hirshaut, Y., Bernhard, M., Trempe, G.: Flourescent antibody studies of human breast cancer. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 48, 1137 (1972)
Eilber, F. R., Morton, D. L.: Impaired immunologic reactivity and recurrance following cancer surgery. Cancer 25, 362 (1970)
Ellis, R. J., Wernick, B. A., Zabriskie, J. B., Goldman, L. I.: Immunologic competence of regional lymph nodes in patients with breast cancer. Cancer 35, 655 (1975)
Fisher, B., Saffer, E. A., Fisher, E. R.: Studies concerning the regional lymph node in cancer. Cancer 33, 271 (1974)
Fisher, B., Wolmark, N., Coyle, J., Saffer, E., Fisher, E. R.: Studies concerning the regional lymph node in cancer, VIII effect of two asynchronous tumor foci on lymph node cell cytotoxicity. Cancer 36, 521 (1975)
Fisher, E. R., Saffer, E. A., Fisher, B.: Studies concerning the regional lymph node in cancer. VI: correlation of lymphocyte transformation of regional node cells and some histopathologic discriminants. Cancer 32, 104 (1973)
Garas, J., Besbeas, S., Papamatheakis, J., Gropas, G., Maragoudakis, S., Katsenis, A., Kiparissiadis, P., Konstadakos, P., Georgaka, A.: Attempt with immunotherapy to control metastatic skin nodules from breast cancer by BCG. Pan. Med. 17, 193 (1975)
Gentile, J. M., Flickinger, J. T.: Isolation of a tumor-specific antigen from adenocarcinoma of the breast. Surg. Gynec. Obstet. 135, 69 (1972)
Gewant, W. C., Chasin, L., Tilson, M. D., Rutledge, C., Goldenberg, I. S.: Lymph node-breast carcinoma interrelations in tissue culture. Surg. Gynec. Obstet. 133, 959 (1971)
Gillette, R. W., Lance, E. M.: Kinetic studies of macrophage III. The effect of hydrocortisone upon the distribution of radiolabelled peritoneal cells. J. Reticuloendothel. Soc. 12, 701 (1972)
Grosser, N., Thomson, D. M. P.: Cell-mediated antitumor immunity in breast cancer patients evaluated by antigen-induced leukocyte adherence inhibition in test tubes. Cancer Res. 35, 2571 (1975)
Gutterman, J., Blumenschein, G. R., Hortobagyi, G., Mavligit, G., Hersh, E. M.: Immunotherapy for breast cancer. Breast 2, 29 (1976)
Hamlin, I. M. E.: Possible host resistance in carcinoma of the breast: a histological study. Brit. J. Cancer 22, 34 (1968)
Harris, J. P., Caleb, M. H., South, M. A.: Secretory component in human mammary carcinoma. Cancer Res. 35, 1861 (1975)
Haskell, C. M., Ossorio, R. C., Sarna, G. P., Fahey, J. L.: Chemoimmunotherapy of metastatic breast cancer with C. Parvum: a double blind randomized trial. Proc. ASCO 17, 265 (1976)
Hellstrom, I., Hellstrom, K. E., Sjogren, H. O., Warner, G.: Demonstration of cell-mediated immunity human neoplasms of various histological types. Cancer 7, 1 (1971)
Hellstrom, I., Sjogren, H. O. Warner, G., Hellstrom, K. E.: Blocking of cell-mediated tumor immunity by sera from patients with growing neoplasms. Int. J. Cancer 7, 226 (1971a)
Heppner, G., Stolbach, L., Cummings, F., McDonough, E., Calabrese, P.: Problems in the clinical use of the microcytotoxicity assay for measuring cell-mediated immunity to tumor cells. Cancer Res. 35, 1931 (1975)
Hirschl, S., Black, M. M., Kwon, C. S.: Ultrastructural characteristics of sinus histiocytic reaction in lymph nodes draining various stages of breast cancer. Cancer 38, 807 (1976)
Hollinshead, A. C., Jaffurs, W. T., Alpert, L. K., Harris, J. E., Herberman, R. B.: Isolation and identification of soluble skin-reactive membrane antigens of malignant and normal human breast cells. Cancer Res. 34, 2961 (1974)
Humphrey, L. J.: Approaches to immunotherapy in cancer. In: Host Defence in Breast Cancer. p. 191. Chicago: Year Book Medical Publishers, Inc. 1974
Humphrey, L. J., Estes, N. C., Morse, P. A., Jr., Jewell, W. R., Boudet, R. A., Hudson, M. J. K.: Serum antibody in patients with mammary disease. Cancer 34, 1516 (1974)
Hunter, R. L., Ferguson, D. J., Coppleson, L. W.: Survival with mammary cancer related to the interaction of germinal center hyperplasia and sinus histiocytosis in axillary and internal mammary lymph nodes. Cancer 36, 528 (1975)
Israel, L.: On 414 cases of human tumours treated with Corebacteria. International Symposium on Experimental and Clinical Effects of C. Parvum. Paris-Berlin-Heidelberg-New York: Springer 1974
Israel, L., Edelstein, R., Depierre, A., Dimitrov, N.: Daily intravenous Corynebacteria Parvum in 20 cases of disseminated cancer: a preliminary report of clinical and biologic findings. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 55, 29 (1975)
Iverson, H. G., Hjent, G. H.: The influences of cortical steroids on the frequency of spleen metastases in patients with breast cancer. Act. Path. Scand. 44, (2), 205 (1958)
Jeejeebhoy, H. F.: Immunological studies of women with primary breast carcinoma. Int. J. Cancer 15, 867 (1975)
Kern, D. H., Pilch, Y. H.: Immunity to human tumor associated antigens mediated by “immune” RNA. Proc. Amer. Assoc. Cancer Res. 16, 152 (1975)
Kister, S. J., Sommer, S. C., Haagensen, C. D., Friedell, G. H., Cooley, E., Varma, A.: Nuclear grade and sinus histiocytosis in cancer of the breast. Cancer 23, 570 (1969)
Klein, E.: Introduction: immunotherapy of cancer in man, a reality. National Cancer Institute Monograph 39, 139 (1973)
Lo Gerfo, P., Krupey, J., Hansen, H. J.: Demonstration of an antigen common to several varieties of neoplasia. New Engl. J. Med. 285, 131 (1971)
MacCarty, W. C.: Factors which influence longevity in cancer. Ann. Surg. 76, 9 (1922)
Mackay, W. D., Baum, M., Margarey, C. J., Vernon, R. B., Quantock, D. S.: Measurement of human phagocyte activity. Brit. J. Surg. 55, 149 (1968)
Maluish, A., Halliday, W. J.: Cell-mediated immunity and specific serum factors in human cancer: the leukocyte adherence inhibition test. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 52, 1415 (1974)
Marcus, D. M., Zinberg, N.: Measurement of serum ferrition by radioimmunoassay: results in normal individuals and patients with breast cancer. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 55, 791 (1975)
Masse, C., Chassaigne, J. P.: Est-il possible de determiner le prognostic du cancer de sein d'apres l'examin histologique des ganglions axillaires? J. Med. Bordeaux 139, 360 (1962)
McCoy, J. L., Jerome, L. F., Dean, J. H., Cannon, G. B., Alford, T. C., Doering, T., Herberman, R. B.: Inhibition of leukocyte migration by tumor-associated antigens in soluble extracts of human breast cancer. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 53, 11 (1974)
McCredie, J. A., Inch, W. R., Sutherland, R. M.: Effect of postoperative radiotherapy on peripheral blood lymphocytes in patients with carcinoma of the breast. Cancer 29, 349 (1972)
Metcalf, D.: Initiation of immune responses against cancer cells. Bull. Int. Union Against Cancer 9, 306 (1971)
Meyer, K. K.: Radiation induced lymphocyte-immune deficiency. Arch. Surg. 101, 114 (1970)
Mitchell, R. J.: The delayed hypersensitivity response in primary breast carcinoma as an index of host resistance. Brit. J. Surg. 59, 505 (1972)
Moore, R. D., Chapnick, R., Schoenberg, M. D.: Lymph nodes associated with carcinoma of the breast. Cancer 13, 545 (1960)
Morton, D. L., Heshell, C. M., Pilch, Y. H., Sparks, F. C., Winters, W. D.: Recent advances in oncology. Ann. Inter. Med. 77, 431 (1972)
Mukherji, B., Hirshaut, Y.: Evidence for fetal antigen in human sarcoma. Science 181, 440 (1973)
Nathanson, L., Fishman, W.: New observations on the regan isoenzyme of alkaline phosphatase. Cancer 27, 1388 (1971)
Nathanson, L.: Use of BCG in treatment of human neoplasms: a review. Seminars in Oncology 1, 337 (1974)
Nemoto, T., Han, T., Minowada, J., Angkor, V., Chamberlain, W. A., Dao, T. L., August, W.: Cell mediated immune status of breast cancer patients: evaluation by skin tests, lymphocyte stimulation and T-rosette cell count. Proc. Amer. Ass. Cancer Res. 15, 60 (1974)
Nemoto, T., Han, T., Minowada, J., Angkor, V., Chamberlain, W. A., Dao, T. L.: Cell-mediated immune status of breast cancer patients: evaluation by skin tests, lymphocyte stimulation, and counts of rosette-forming cells. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 53, 641 (1974a)
Oettgen, H. F., Old, L. J., Farrow, J. H., Valentine, F. T., Lawrence, H. S., Thomas, L.: Effects of dialyzable transfer factor in patients with breast cancer. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 71, 2319 (1974)
Papatestas, A. E., Kark, A. E.: Peripheral lymphocyte counts in breast carcinoma: an index of immune competence. Cancer 34, 2014 (1974)
Patel, R., Habel, M. B., Wilson, R. E., Birtch, A. G., Moore, F. D.: Histocompatibility (HL-A) antigens and cancer of the breast. Amer. J. Surg. 124, 31 (1972)
Penn, I.: Chemical immunosuppression and human cancer. Cancer 34, 1474 (1974)
Pilch, Y. H., Veltman, L. L., Kern, D. H.: Immune cytolysis of human tumor cells mediated by xenogeneic “immune” RNA: implications for immunotherapy. Surgery 76, 23 (1974)
Pinsky, C. M., Domeiri, A., Caron, A. S., Knapper, W. H., Oettgen, H. F.: Delayed hypersensitivity reactions in patients with cancer. In: Investigations and Stimulation of Immunity in Cancer Patients. p. 37. Berlin-Heidelberg-New York: Springer 1974
Priori, E. S., Seman, G., Smockowski, H. S., Gallager, H. S., Anderson, D. E.: Immunoflourescence studies of sera of patients with breast cancer. Cancer 28, 1462 (1971)
Richters, A., Sherwin, R. P.: Human breast cancer and the autochthonous lymph node cell responses: a tissue culture and ultrastructural study. Cancer 34, 328 (1974)
Riesco, A.: Five year cancer core relation to total amount of peripheral lymphocytes and neutrophil. Cancer 25, 135 (1969)
Robbins, G. F., Berg, J. W.: Bilateral primary breast cancers. Cancer 17, 1501 (1964)
Roberts, M. M., Forrest, A. P. M.: Lymphocyte transformation in breast cancer. Brit. J. Surg. 57, 381 (1970)
Roberts, M. M., Bass, E. M.: Studies of the immune response in breast cancer. Brit. J. Cancer 28, 77 (1973)
Roberts, M. M., Bathgate, E. M., Stevenson, A.: Serum immunoglobulin levels in breast cancer. Cancer 36, 211 (1975)
Roberts, M. M., Bass, E. M.: The immune reaction to human breast cancer tissue. Brit. J. Surg. 62, 660 (1975a)
Rojas, A. F., Feierstein, J. N., Mickiewicz, E., Glait, H., Olivari, A. J.: Levamisole in advanced human breast cancer. Lancet 1976 I, 211
Silverberg, S. G., Chitale, A. R., Hind, A. D., Frazier, A. B., Levitt, S. H.: Sinus histiocytosis and mammary carcinoma: study of 366 radical mastectomies and an historical review. Cancer 26, 1177 (1970)
Silverberg, S. G., Frable, W. J., Brook, J. W.: Sinus histiocytosis in non-diagnostic scalene lymph node biopsies. Cancer 32, 177 (1973)
Sinkovics, J. G., Reeves, W. J., Cabiness, J. R.: Cell-and-antibody-mediated immune reactions of patients to cultured cells of breast carcinoma. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 48, 1145 (1972)
Smith, G. V., Morse, P. A., Jr., Deraps, G. D., Raju, S., Hardy, J. D.: Immunotherapy of patients with cancer. Surgery 74, 59 (1973)
Southam, C. M.: Tumor resistance in Cancer Patients. In: Endogenous Factors Influencing Host-Tumor Balance. p. 199. Chicago: University Press (1967)
Sparks, F. C., Wile, A. G., Ramming, K. P., Silver, H. K. B., Wolk, R. W., Morton, D. L.: Immunology and adjuvant chemoimmunotherapy of breast cancer. Arch. Surg. III, 1057 (1976)
Springer, G. F., Desai, P. R., Banatwala, I.: Brief communication: Blood group MN antigens and precursors in normal and malignant human breast glandular tissues. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 54, 335 (1975)
Stein, J. A., Adler, A., Efraim, S. B., Maor, M.: Immunocompetence, immunosuppression, and human breast cancer, 1. An analysis of their relationship by known parameters of cell-mediated immunity in well-defined clinical stages of disease. Cancer 38, 1171 (1976)
Steward, A. M., Nixon, D., Zamcheck, Aisenberg, A.: Carcinoembryonic antigen in breast cancer patients: serum levels and disease progress. Cancer 33, 1246 (1974)
Stewart, T. H. M.: Orizaga, M.: Presence of D.H. reactors in patients toward cellular extracts of their malignant tumors. Cancer 28, 1472 (1971)
Stjernsward, J.: Immunological changes after radiotherapy for mammary carcinoma. Ann. Inst. Pasteur 122, 833 (1972)
Stjernsward, J., Levin, A.: Delayed hypersensitivity-induced regression of human neoplasms. Cancer 28, 628 (1971)
Stjernsward, J., Jondal, M., Vanky, F., Wigzell, H., Sealy, R.: Lymphopenia and change in distribution of human B and T lymphocytes in peripheral blood induced by irradiation for mammary carcinoma. Lancet 1972 I, 1352
Stolbach, L. L., Krant, M. J., Fishman, W. A.: Ectopic production of alkaline phosphatase in patients with cancer. New Engl. J. Med. 281, 757 (1969)
Symes, M. O., Riddell, A. G.: The use of immunized pig lymph-node cells in the treatment of patients with advanced malignant disease. Brit. J. Surg. 60, 176 (1973)
Tashima, C. K., Blumenschein, G. R., Gutterman, J. U.: Comparison of Adriamycin combination drug program with BCG immunotherapy vs. MER immunotherapy for metastatic breast cancer. Proc. ASCO 17, 288 (1976)
Thomson, D. M. P., Gold, P.: The radioimmunoassay of circulating carcinoembryonic antigen of the human digestive system. Proc. nat. Acad. Sci. 64, 161 (1969)
Thomson, D. M.P., Marti, H., Flores, M., Grosser, N., Freedman, S. O., Gold, P., Shuster, J.: Isolation and purification of a tumor antigen (TA) of breast cancer as detected by leukocyte adherence inhibition (LAI) in test tubes. Proc. AACR 17, 29 (1976)
Tsakraklides, V., Olson, P., Kersey, J. H., Good, R. A.: Prognostic significance of the regional lymph node histology in cancer of the breast. Cancer 34, 1259 (1974)
Tsakraklides, E., Tsakraklides, V., Ashikari, H., Rosen, P. P., Siegel, F. P., Robbins, G. F., Good, R. A.: In vitro studies of axillary lymph node cells in patients with breast cancer. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 54, 549 (1975)
Vaage, J., Doroshow, J. H., DuBois, T. T.: Radiation induced changes in established tumor immunity. Cancer Res. 34, 129 (1974)
Verhaegen, H., DeCree, J., DeCock, W., Verbrugen, F.: Levamisole and the immune response. New Engl. J. Med. 289, 1148 (1975)
Wanebo, H. J., Thaler, T., Urban, J., Oettgen, H.: Immunobiology of operable breast cancer: an assessment of biologic risk by immunoparameters. Ann. Surg. 184, (3) 258 (1976)
Wang, D. Y., Bulbrook, R. D., Hayward, J. L., Hendrick, J. C., Franchimont, P.: Relationship between plasma CEA and prognosis in women with breast cancer. Europ. J. Cancer 11, 615 (1975)
Wartman, W. B.: Sinus cell hyperplasia of lymph nodes regional to adenocarcinoma of breast and colon. Brit. J. Cancer 13, 389 (1959)
Weston, W. L., Claman, N. H., Krueger, G. G.: Site of action of cortisol in cellular immunity. J. Immunol. 110, 880 (1973)
Whitehead, R. H., Teasdale, C., Thatcher, J., Roberts, G. P., Hughes, L. E.: T and B lymphocytes in breast cancer; stage relationship and abrogation of T-lymphocyte depression by enzyme treatment in vitro. Lancet 1976 I, 330–333
Whittaker, M. G., Clark, C. G.: Depressed lymphocyte function in carcinoma of the breast. Brit. J. Surg. 58, 717 (1971)
Zelen, M.: A hypothesis for the natural time history of breast cancer. Cancer Res. 28, 207 (1968)
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Nathanson, L. Immunology and immunotherapy of human breast cancer. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2, 209–224 (1977). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00206003
Received:
Accepted:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00206003