Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Competitive exclusion, coexistence and community structure

  • Published:
Acta Biotheoretica Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Studies of coexistence are based ultimately on the assumption that competitive exclusion is a general and accredited phenomenon in nature. However, the ecological and evolutionary impact of interspecific competition is of questionable significance. Review of three reputed examples of competitive exclusion in the field (Aphytis wasps, red and grey squirrels, and triclads) demonstrates that the widely-accepted competition-based interpretations are unlikely, that alternative explanations are overlooked, and that all other reported cases need critical reinvestigation. Although interspecific competition does undoubtedly occur, the evidence suggests it is usually too weak and intermittent a force to achieve competitive exclusion or any other ecologically-significant result, except perhaps rarely and on a minor scale. Coexistence and community structure are therefore not ecological conditions to be especially accounted for, especially since their inherently comparative methods generate information that is largely superficial. Alternative questions that relate directly to species, the units of diversity, are discussed and they emphasize the primary habitat requirements of species, which are fixed during speciation. Neither the comparative approach of coexistence studies, nor the investigation of pattern is likely to be profitable, since the acquisition of species-specific characteristics during speciation requires historical research. At least one alternative theory of ecology, based on the close adaptation of organisms to the environment, is available.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Aarssen, L.W. (1983). Ecological combining ability and competitive combining ability in plants: toward a general evolutionary theory of coexistence in systems of competition.- Am. Nat. 122: 707–731.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Aarssen, L.W. (1985). Interpretation of the evolutionary consequences of competition in plants: an experimental approach.-Oikos 45: 99–109.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Abele, L.G., Simberloff, D.S., Strong, D.R. and Thistle, A.B. (1984). Preface. In D.R. Strong, D. Simberloff, L.G. Abele and A.B. Thistle, eds., Ecological Communities: Conceptual Issues and the Evidence, vii-x.- Princeton: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Abdelrahman, I. (1974a). The effect of extreme temperatures on California red scale,Aonideilla aurantti (Mask.) (Hemiptera: Diaspididae), and its natural enemies.- Aust. J. Zool. 22: 203–212.

    Google Scholar 

  5. Abdelrahman, I. (1974b). Growth, development and innate capacity for increase inAphytis chrysomphali Mercet andA. melinus DeBach, parasites of California red scale,Aonidiella aurantii (Mask.) in relation to temperature.- Aust. J. Zool. 22: 213–230.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Abrams, P. (1983). The theory of limiting similarity.- Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 14: 359–376.

    Google Scholar 

  7. Anderson, M.A. (1987). A re-appraisal of method: the way of confrontation.- S. Afr. J. Sci. 83: 89–93.

    Google Scholar 

  8. Andrewartha, H.G. and Birch, L.C. (1954). The Distribution and Abundance of Animals.- Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  9. Andrewartha, H.G. and Birch, L.C. (1984). The Ecological Web. More on the Distribution and Abundance of Animals.- Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Armstrong, R.A. and McGehee, R. (1980). Competitive exclusion.- Am. Nat. 115: 151–170.

    Google Scholar 

  11. Atkinson, W.D. (1985). Coexistence of Australian rainforest Diptera breeding in fallen fruit.- J. Anim. Ecol. 54: 507–518.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Avidov, Z., Balshin, M. and Gerson, U. (1970). Studies onAphytis coheni, a parasite of the California red scale,Aonidiella aurantii, in Israel.- Entomophaga 15: 191–207.

    Google Scholar 

  13. Ayala, F.J. (1970). Competition, coexistence, and evolution. In M.K. Hecht and W.C. Steere, eds., Essays in Evolution and Genetics in Honor of Theodosius Dobzhansky, 121–158.- Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  14. Benton, M.J. (1983a). Large-scale replacements in the history of life.- Nature (Lond) 302: 16–17.

    Google Scholar 

  15. Benton, M.J. (1983b). Dinosaurs success in the Triassic: a noncompetitive ecological model.- Q. Rev. Biol. 58: 29–55.

    Google Scholar 

  16. Benton, M.J. (1987). Progress and competition in macroevolution.- Biol. Rev. 62: 305–338.

    Google Scholar 

  17. Bertram, B.C.R. and Moltu, D.-P. (1986). Reintroducing red squirrels into Regent's Park.- Mammal Rev. 16: 81–88.

    Google Scholar 

  18. Birch, L.C. (1953). Experimental background to the study of the distribution and abundance of insects. III. The relation between innate capacity for increase and survival of different species of beetles living together on the same food.- Evolution 7: 136–144.

    Google Scholar 

  19. Birch, L.C. (1957). The meanings of competition.- Am. Nat. 91: 5–18.

    Google Scholar 

  20. Birch, L.C. (1979). The effect of species of animals which share common resources on one another's distribution and abundance.- Fortschr. Zool. 25: 197–221.

    Google Scholar 

  21. Bromberger, S. (1966). Why-questions. In R.G. Colodny, ed., Mind and Cosmos, Essays in Contemporary Science and Philosophy, 86–111.- Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh Press.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Budyko, M.I. (1982). The Earth's Climate: Past and Future.- New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  23. Chamberlin, T.C. (1897). The method of multiple working hypotheses.- J. Geol. 5: 837–848.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Cole, L.C. (1960). Competitive exclusion.- Science 132: 348–349.

    Google Scholar 

  25. Connell, J.H. (1975). Some mechanisms producing structure in natural communities. In M.L. Cody and J.M. Diamond, eds., Ecology and Evolution of Communities, 460–490. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  26. Connell, J.H. (1978). Diversity in tropical rain forests and coral reefs.- Science 199: 1302–1310.

    Google Scholar 

  27. Connell, J.H. (1980). Diversity and the coevolution of competitors, or the ghost of competition past.- Oikos 35: 131–138.

    Google Scholar 

  28. Connell, J.H. (1983). On the prevalence and relative importance of interspecific competition: evidence from field experiments.- Am. Nat. 122: 661–696.

    Google Scholar 

  29. Connell, J.H., Tracey, J.G. and Webb, L.J. (1984). Compensatory recruitment, growth, and mortality as factors maintaining rain forest tree diversity.- Ecol. Monogr. 54: 141–164.

    Google Scholar 

  30. Cousens, R. (1985). Theory, hypothesis and experimental design in ecology.- Bull. Br. Ecol. Soc. 16: 76–77.

    Google Scholar 

  31. Darwin, C. (1859). On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life.- London: John Murray.

    Google Scholar 

  32. Davis, M.B. (1986). Climatic instability, time lags, and community disequilibrium. In J. Diamond and T.J. Case, eds., Community Ecology, 269–284.- New York: Harper & Row.

    Google Scholar 

  33. DeBach, P. (1966). The competitive displacement and coexistence principles.- Annu. Rev. Entomol. 11: 183–212.

    Google Scholar 

  34. DeBach, P. (1974). Biological Control by Natural Enemies.- Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  35. DeBach, P. and Sundby, R.A. (1963). Competitive displacement between ecological homologues.- Hilgardia 34: 105–166.

    Google Scholar 

  36. DeBach, P., Fisher, T.W. and Landi, J. (1955). Some effects of meteorological factors on all stages ofAphytis lingnanensis, a parasite of the California red scale.- Ecology 36: 743–753.

    Google Scholar 

  37. DeBach, P., Hendrickson, R.M. and Rose, M. (1978). Competitive displacement: extinction of the yellow scale,Aonidiella aurantii (Coq.) (Homoptera: Diaspididae), by its ecological homologue, the California red scale,Aonidiella aurantii (Mask.) in southern California.- Hilgardia 46: 1–35.

    Google Scholar 

  38. DeBach, P., Rosen, D. and Kennett, C.E. (1971). Biological control of coccids by introduced natural enemies. In C.B. Huffaker, ed., Biological Control, 165–194.- New York: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  39. Dempster, J.P. (1982). The ecology of the cinnabar moth,Tyria jacobaeae L. (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae).- Adv. Ecol. Res. 12: 1–36.

    Google Scholar 

  40. Dempster, J.P. and Pollard, E. (1986). Spatial heterogeneity, stochasticity and the detection of density dependence in animal populations.- Oikos 46: 413–416.

    Google Scholar 

  41. den Boer, P.J. (1980). Exclusion or coexistence and the taxonomic or ecological relationship between species.- Neth. J. Zool. 30: 278–306.

    Google Scholar 

  42. den Boer, P.J. (1986a). The present status of the competitive exclusion principle.- TREE 1: 25–28.

    Google Scholar 

  43. den Boer, P.J. (1986b). Density dependence and the stabilization of animal numbers. 1. The winter moth.- Oecologia (Berl) 69: 507–512.

    Google Scholar 

  44. den Boer, P.J. (1988). Density dependence and the stabilization of animal numbers. 3. The winter moth reconsidered.-Oecologia (Berl) 75: 161–168.

    Google Scholar 

  45. Diamond, J.M. (1978). Niche shifts and the rediscovery of interspecific competition.- Am. Sci. 66: 322–331.

    Google Scholar 

  46. Diamond, J.M. and Case, T.J. (1986). Community Ecology. New York: Harper & Row.

    Google Scholar 

  47. Dobkin, D.S., Olivieri, I. and Ehrlich P.R. (1987). Rainfall and the interaction of microclimate with larval resources in the population dynamics of checkerspot butterflies (Euphydryas editha) inhabiting serpentine grassland.- Oecologia (Berl) 71: 161–166.

    Google Scholar 

  48. Ebeling, W. (1959). Subtropical Fruit Pests.- University of California: Division of Agricultural Sciences.

  49. Feyerabend, P. (1970). Consolations for the specialist. In I. Lakatos and A. Musgrave, eds., Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge, 197–230.- Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  50. Ford, M.J. (1982). The Changing Climate: Responses of the Natural Fauna and Flora.- London: George Allen & Unwin.

    Google Scholar 

  51. Fryer, G. (1959). The trophic interrelationships and ecology of some littoral communities in Lake Nyasa with especial reference to the fishes, and a discussion of the evolution of a group of rock-frequenting Cichlidae.- Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 132: 153–281.

    Google Scholar 

  52. Fryer, G. (1987). Quantitative and qualitative: numbers and reality in the study of living organisms.- Freshwater Biol. 17: 177–189.

    Google Scholar 

  53. Fryer, G. and Iles, T.D. (1972). The Cichlid Fishes of the Great Lakes of Africa. Their Biology and Evolution. Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd.

    Google Scholar 

  54. Gause, G.F. (1934). The Struggle for Existence. Baltimore: Williams and Williams.

    Google Scholar 

  55. Gould, S.J. (1982). Free to be extinct.- Nat. Hist. 91: 12–16.

    Google Scholar 

  56. Grine, F.E. (1981). Trophic differences between ‘gracile’ and ‘robust’ australopithecines: a scanning electron microscope analysis of occlusal events.- S. Afr. J. Sci. 77: 203–230.

    Google Scholar 

  57. Grinnell, J. (1917). The niche-relationships of the California thrasher.- Auk. 34: 427–433.

    Google Scholar 

  58. Grossman, G.D., Moyle, P.B. and Whitaker, J.0. (1982). Stochasticity in structural and functional characteristics of an Indiana stream fish assemblage: a test of community theory.- Am. Nat. 120: 423–454.

    Google Scholar 

  59. Habib, A., Salama, H.S. and Amin, A.H. (1972). Population ofAonidiella aurantii on citrus varieties in relation to their physical and chemical characteristics.- Ent. Exp. Appl. 15: 324–328.

    Google Scholar 

  60. Hairston, N.G. (1986). Species packing inDesmognathus salamanders: experimental demonstration of predation and competition.- Am. Nat. 127: 266–291.

    Google Scholar 

  61. Hajek, A.E., and Dahlsten, D.L. (1986). Coexistence of three species of leaf-feeding aphids (Homoptera), onBetula pendula.- Oecologia (Berl) 68: 380–386.

    Google Scholar 

  62. Hardin, G. (1960). The competitive exclusion principle. Science 131: 1292–1297.

    Google Scholar 

  63. Hassell, M.P. (1985). Insect natural enemies as regulatory factors.- J. Anim. Ecol. 54: 323–334.

    Google Scholar 

  64. Heck, K.L. (1980). Competitive exclusion or competitive delusion? - Paleobiol. 6: 241–242.

    Google Scholar 

  65. Hulley, P.E., Walter, G.H. and Craig, A.J.F.K. (1988a). Interspecific competition and community structure, I. Shortcomings of the competition paradigm.- Riv. di Biol.-Biol. Forum 81: 57–71.

    Google Scholar 

  66. Hulley, P.E., Walter, G.H. and Craig, A.J.F.K. (1988b). Interspecific competition and community structure, II. The recognition concept of species.- Riv. di Biol.-Biol. Biol. Forum 81: 57–71.

    Google Scholar 

  67. Hulley, P.E., Walter, G.H. and Craig, A.J.F.K. (1988b). Interspecific competition and community structure, II. The recognition concept of species.- Riv. di Biol.-Biol. Forum 81: 261–283.

    Google Scholar 

  68. Hutchinson, G.E. (1948). Circular causal systems in ecology.- Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 50: 221–246.

    Google Scholar 

  69. Hutchinson, G.E. (1957). Concluding remarks.- Cold Spring Harbor Symp. Quant. Biol. 22: 415–427.

    Google Scholar 

  70. Hutchinson, G.E. (1959). Homage to Santa Rosalia or why are there so many kinds of animals? - Am. Nat. 93: 145–159.

    Google Scholar 

  71. Hutchinson, G.E. (1961). The paradox of the plankton.- Am. Nat. 95: 137–145.

    Google Scholar 

  72. Hutchinson, G.E. (1965). The Ecological Theater and the Evolutionary Play.- New Haven, Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  73. Hutchinson, G.E. (1978). An Introduction to Population Ecology.- New Haven: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  74. Johnson, R.H. (1910). Determinate evolution in the color pattern of the lady-beetles.- Carnegie Inst. Wash. Publ. 122: 1–104.

    Google Scholar 

  75. Kenward, R.E. and Tonkin, J.M. (1986). Red and grey squirrels: some behavioural and biometric differences.-J. Zool. (Lond) 209: 279–304.

    Google Scholar 

  76. Kfir, R. and Luck, R.F. (1979). Effects of constant and variable temperature extremes on sex ratio and progeny production byAphytis melinus andA. lingnanensis (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae).- Ecol. Ent. 4: 335–344.

    Google Scholar 

  77. Kfir, R. and Luck, R.F. (1984). Effects of temperature and relative humidity on developmental rate and adult life span of threeAphytis species (Hym., Aphelinidae) parasitising California red scale. Z. ang. Ent. 97: 314–320.

    Google Scholar 

  78. Kikkawa, J. and Anderson, D.J. (1986). Community Ecology: Pattern and Process.- London: Blackwell Scientific Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  79. Knoop, W.T. and Walker, B.H. (1985). Interaction of woody and herbaceous vegetation in a southern African savanna.- J. Ecol. 73: 235–253.

    Google Scholar 

  80. Lamb, H.H. (1977). Climate Present, Past and Future. Vol 2. Climatic History and the Future.- London: Methuen.

    Google Scholar 

  81. Latto, J. and Hassell, M.P. (1987). Do pupal predators regulate the winter moth? - Oecologia (Berl) 74: 153–155.

    Google Scholar 

  82. Lawton, J.H. (1986). Predicting fruitfly guild sizes. nature (Lond) 323: 398.

    Google Scholar 

  83. Levin, S.A. (1970). Community equilibria and stability, and an extension of the competitive exclusion principle.- Am. Nat. 104: 413–423.

    Google Scholar 

  84. Lloyd, H.G. (1983). Past and present distribution of red and grey squirrels.- Mammal Rev. 13: 69–80.

    Google Scholar 

  85. Lotka, A.J. (1925). Elements of Physical Biology. Baltimore, Williams and Wilkins.

    Google Scholar 

  86. Luck, R.F. and Podoler, H. (1985). Competitive exclusion ofAphytis lingnanensis byA. melinus: potential role of host size.- Ecology 66: 904–913.

    Google Scholar 

  87. Luck, R.F. and Uygun, N. (1986). Host recognition and selection byAphytis species: response to California red, oleander, and cactus scale cover extracts.- Entomol. exp. appl. 40: 129–136.

    Google Scholar 

  88. Luck, R.F., Podoler, H. and Kfir, R. (1982). Host selection and egg allocation behaviour byAphytis melinus andA. lingnanensis: comparison of two facultatively gregarious parasitoids.- Ecol. Ent. 7: 397–408.

    Google Scholar 

  89. MacArthur, R.H. (1958). Population ecology of some warblers of northeastern coniferous forests.- Ecology 39: 599–619.

    Google Scholar 

  90. MacArthur, R.H. and Levins, R. (1967). The limiting similarity, convergence, and divergence of coexisting species.- Am. Nat. 101: 377–385.

    Google Scholar 

  91. MacKinnon, K. (1978). Competition between red and grey squirrels.- Mammal Rev. 8: 185–190.

    Google Scholar 

  92. MacNally, R.C. and Doolan, J.M. (1986). An empirical approach to guild structure: habitat relationships in nine species of eastern-Australian cicadas.- Oikos 47: 33–46.

    Google Scholar 

  93. Marsh, A.C. and Ribbink, A.J. (1985). Feeding-site utilization in three sympatric species ofPetrotilapia (Pisces, Cichlidae) from Lake Malawi.- Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 25: 331–338.

    Google Scholar 

  94. May, R.M. and MacArthur, R.H. (1972). Niche overlap as a function of environmental variability.- Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 69: 1109–1113.

    Google Scholar 

  95. May, R.M. and Seger, J. (1986). Ideas in ecology. Am. Sci. 74: 256–267.

    Google Scholar 

  96. McIntosh, R.P. (1987). Pluralism in ecology.- Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 18: 321–341.

    Google Scholar 

  97. McLaren, D.J. (1985). Ammonoids and extinctions.- Nature (Lond) 313: 12–13.

    Google Scholar 

  98. Messier, F. and Crete, M. (1984). Body condition and population regulation by food resources in moose.-Oecologia (Berl) 65: 44–50.

    Google Scholar 

  99. Middleton, A.D. (1930). The ecology of the American Grey Squirrel (Sciurnus carolinensis Gmelin) in the British Isles.-Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1930: 809–843.

    Google Scholar 

  100. Miller, R.S. (1967). Pattern and process in competition. Adv. Ecol. Res. 4: 1–74.

    Google Scholar 

  101. Moulton, M.P. and Pimm, S.L. (1986). The extent of competition in shaping an introduced avifauna. In J.M. Diamond and T.J. Case, eds., Community Ecology, 80–97. New York: Harper & Row.

    Google Scholar 

  102. Murray, B.G. (1986). The structure of theory, and the role of competition in community dynamics.- Oikos 46: 145–158.

    Google Scholar 

  103. Odum, E.P. (1971). Fundamentals of Ecology.- Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders.

    Google Scholar 

  104. Opp, S.B. and Luck, R.F. (1986). Effects of host size on selected fitness components ofAphytis melinus andA. lingnanensis (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae).- Ann. ent. Soc. Am. 79: 700–704.

    Google Scholar 

  105. Park, T. (1962). Beetles, competition, and populations.- Science 138: 1369–1375.

    Google Scholar 

  106. Paterson, H.E.H. (1981). The continuing search for the unknown and unknowable: a critique of contemporary ideas on speciation.- S. Afr. J. Sci. 77: 113–119.

    Google Scholar 

  107. Paterson, H.E.H. (1985). The recognition concept of species. In E. Vrba, ed., Species and Speciation, 21–29. Pretoria: Transvaal Museum.

    Google Scholar 

  108. Paterson, H.E.H. (1986). Environment and species.- S. Afr. J. Sci. 82: 62–65.

    Google Scholar 

  109. Perrin, M. (1986). Zoological Society of Southern Africa Symposium. Competition and Coexistence.- S. Afr. J. Sci. 82: 125–126.

    Google Scholar 

  110. Pianka, E.R. (1978). Evolutionary Ecology.- New York: Harper & Row.

    Google Scholar 

  111. Platt, J.R. (1964). Strong inference.- Science 146: 347–353.

    Google Scholar 

  112. Podoler, H. (1981). Effects of variable temperatures on responses ofAphytis melinus andA. lingnanensis to host density.- Phytoparasitica 9: 179–190.

    Google Scholar 

  113. Poethke, H.J. and Kirchberg, M. (1987). On the stabilizing effect of density-dependent mortality factors.-Oecologia (Berl) 74: 156–158.

    Google Scholar 

  114. Price, P.W. (1984). Insect Ecology.- New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  115. Price, P.W., Slobodchikoff, C.N. and Gaud, W.S. (1984). A New Ecology: Novel Approaches to Interactive Systems. New York: John Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  116. Putman, R.J. and Wratten, S.D. (1984). Principles of Ecology.- London: Croom Helm.

    Google Scholar 

  117. Ranta, E. (1983). Proboscis length and the coexistence of Bumblebee species.- Oikos 43: 189–196.

    Google Scholar 

  118. Reynolds, J.C. (1985). Details of the geographic replacement of the red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris) by the grey squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) in eastern England. J. Anim. Ecol. 54: 149–162.

    Google Scholar 

  119. Reynoldson, T.B. (1985). Take-over of an Anglesey lake by an American species of triclad — the potential threat to the native triclad fauna.- Bull. Br. Ecol. Soc. 16: 80–86.

    Google Scholar 

  120. Ribbink, A.J., Marsh, B.A., Marsh, A.C., Ribbink, A.C. and Sharp, B.J. (1983). A preliminary survey of the fishes of rocky habitats in Lake Malawi.- S. Afr. J. Zool. 18: 149–310.

    Google Scholar 

  121. Ricklefs, R.E. (1987). Community diversity: relative roles of local and regional processes.- Science 235: 167–171.

    Google Scholar 

  122. Roland, J. (1988). Decline in winter moth populations in North America: direct versus indirect effect of introduced parasites.- J. Anim. Ecol. 57: 523–531.

    Google Scholar 

  123. Rosenzweig, M.L. (1975). On continental steady states of species diversity. In M.L. Cody and J.M. Diamond, eds., Ecology and Evolution of Communities, 121–140.- Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  124. Ross, H.H. (1957). Principles of natural coexistence indicated by leafhopper populations.- Evolution 11: 113–129.

    Google Scholar 

  125. Ross, H.H. (1958). Further comments on niches and natural coexistence.- Evolution 12: 112–113.

    Google Scholar 

  126. Ross, S.T. (1986). Resource partitioning in fish assemblages: a review of field studies.- Copeia 1986: 352–388.

    Google Scholar 

  127. Sale, P.F. (1980). The ecology of fishes on coral reefs.- Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. Annu. Rev. 18: 367–421.

    Google Scholar 

  128. Sale, P.F. (1988). Perception, pattern, chance and the structure of reef fish communities.- Env. Biol. Fish. 21: 3–15.

    Google Scholar 

  129. Savage, J.M. (1958). The concept of ecological niche, with reference to the theory of natural coexistence. Evolution 12: 111–112.

    Google Scholar 

  130. Schoener, T.W. (1974). Resource partitioning in ecological communities.- Science 185: 27–39.

    Google Scholar 

  131. Schoener, T.W. (1982). The controversy over interspecific competition.- Am. Sci. 70: 586–595.

    Google Scholar 

  132. Schoener, T.W. (1986a). Resource partitioning. In J. Kikkawa and D.J. Anderson, eds., Community Ecology: Pattern and Process, 91–126.- London: Blackwell Scientific Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  133. Schoener, T.W. (1986b). Overview: kinds of ecological communities — ecology becomes pluralistic. In J.M. Diamond and T.J. Case, eds., Community Ecology, 467–479.- New York: Harper & Row.

    Google Scholar 

  134. Schweber, S.S. (1977). The origin of the Origin revisited.- J. Hist. Biol. 10: 229–316.

    Google Scholar 

  135. Shorrocks, B., Rosewell, J., Edwards, K. and Atkinson, W. (1984). Interspecific competition is not a major organising force in many insect communities.- Nature 310: 310–312.

    Google Scholar 

  136. Shorten, M. (1954). Squirrels.- London: Collins.

    Google Scholar 

  137. Simberloff, D. (1978). Using island biogeographic distributions to determine if colonization is stochastic.- Am. Nat. 112: 713–726.

    Google Scholar 

  138. Simberloff, D. (1980). A succession of paradigms in ecology: essentialism to materialism and probabilism.- Synthese 43: 3–39.

    Google Scholar 

  139. Simberloff, D. (1982). The status of competition theory in ecology.- Ann. Zool. Fennici 19: 241–253.

    Google Scholar 

  140. Simberloff, D. (1983). Competition theory, hypothesis-testing, and other community ecological buzzwords.- Am. Nat. 122: 626–635.

    Google Scholar 

  141. Sinclair, A.R.E. (1985). Does interspecific competition or predation shape the African ungulate community? - J. Anim. Ecol. 54: 899–918.

    Google Scholar 

  142. Sinclair, A.R.E. and Norton-Griffiths, M. (1982). Does competition or facilitation regulate migrant ungulate populations in the Serengeti? A test of hypotheses.- Oecologia (Berl) 53: 364–369.

    Google Scholar 

  143. Snow, D.W. and Nelson, J.B. (1984). Evolution and adaptations of Galapagos sea-birds.- Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 21: 137–155.

    Google Scholar 

  144. Sota, T. (1985). Activity patterns, diets and interspecific interactions of coexisting spring and autumn breeding carabids:Carabus yaconinus andLeptocarabus kumagaii (Coleoptera, Carabidae).- Ecol. Entomol. 10: 315–324.

    Google Scholar 

  145. Stebbins, G.L. (1977). Processes of Organic Evolution.- Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  146. Steere, J.B. (1894). On the distribution of genera and species of non-migratory land-birds in the Philippines. Ibis 6th ser. 6: 411–420.

    Google Scholar 

  147. Strong, D.R. (1983). Natural variability and the manifold mechanisms of ecological communities.- Am. Nat. 122: 636–660.

    Google Scholar 

  148. Strong, D.R., Simberloff, D., Abele, L.G. and Thistle, A.B. (1984). Ecological Communities: Conceptual Issues and the Evidence.- Princeton: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  149. Thayer, C.W. (1985). Brachiopods versus mussels: competition, predation, and palatability.- Science 228: 1527–1528.

    Google Scholar 

  150. Thornhill, R. (1980). Competition and coexistence among Panorpa scorpionflies (Mecoptera: Panorpidae).- Ecol. Monogr. 50: 179–197.

    Google Scholar 

  151. Tittersor, A.M. (1977). Family Sciuridae. Squirrels. GenusSciurus. In G.B. Corbet and H.N. Southern, eds., The Handbook of British Mammals, 152–172.- Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  152. Toft, C.A. (1985). Resource partitioning in amphibians and reptiles.- Copeia 1985: 1–21.

    Google Scholar 

  153. Volterra, V. (1931). Leçons sur la Theorie Mathematique de la Lutte pour la Vie.- Paris: Gauthier-Villars.

    Google Scholar 

  154. Waloff, N. (1979). Partitioning of resources by grassland leafhoppers (Auchenorrhyncha, Homoptera).- Ecol. Entomol. 4: 379–385.

    Google Scholar 

  155. Walter, G.H., Hulley, P.E. and Craig, A.J.F.K. (1984). Speciation, adaptation and interspecific competition.- Oikos 43: 246–248.

    Google Scholar 

  156. Wanntorp,H-E. (1983). Historical constraints in adaptation theory: traits and non-traits.- Oikos 41: 157–160.

    Google Scholar 

  157. Ward, P. (1983). The extinction of the ammonites.- Sci. Am. 249: 114–124.

    Google Scholar 

  158. White, T.C.R. (1969). An index to measure weather-induced stress of trees associated with outbreaks of psyllids in Australia.- Ecology 50: 905–909.

    Google Scholar 

  159. White, T.C.R. (1970a). Some aspects of the life history, host selection, dispersal and oviposition of adultCardiaspina densitexta (Homoptera: Psyllidae).- Aust. J. Zool. 18: 105–117.

    Google Scholar 

  160. White, T.C.R. (1970b). The nymphal stage ofCardiaspina densitexta (Homoptera: Psyllidae) on leaves ofEucalyptus fascicu1osa.- Aust. J. Zool. 18: 273–293.

    Google Scholar 

  161. White, T.C.R. (1976). Weather, food and plagues of locusts.- Oecologia (Berl) 22: 119–134.

    Google Scholar 

  162. Whittaker, R.H., Levin, S.A. and Root, R.B. (1973). Niche, habitat, and ecotope.- Am. Nat. 107: 321–338.

    Google Scholar 

  163. Wiens, J.A. (1983). Avian community ecology: an iconoclastic view. In A.H. Brush and G.A. Clark, eds., Perspectives in Ornithology: Essays Presented for the Centennial of the American Ornithologist's Union.- Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  164. Williams, G.C. (1966). Adaptation and Natural Selection.- Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Author notes

  1. G. H. Walter

    Present address: Department of Entomology, University of Queensland, 4067, St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Zoology, University of the Witwatersrand, 1 Jan Smuts Avenue, 2001, Johannesburg, South Africa

    G. H. Walter

Authors
  1. G. H. Walter
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Walter, G.H. Competitive exclusion, coexistence and community structure. Acta Biotheor 37, 281–313 (1988). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00154138

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00154138

Key words

Search

Navigation