Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to review work on subjective probability and strength of belief, in particular with reference to situations involving a high degree of risk. Work concerned mostly with cognitive limitations and shortcomings is discussed and some implications for societal responses to risky technology are offered. It is concluded that there is, in the literature on subjective probability, a lack of work on small probabilities and on the emotional influence of belief formation to be expected in situations that are related to large social values.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Anderson, N. H. and Jacobson, A. (1965). “Effect of stimulus inconsistency and discounting instructions in personality impression formation,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2: 531–539.
Asch, S. E. (1951). “Effects of Group Pressure upon the Modification and Distortion of Judgment,” in Geutskow, H., ed., Groups, Leadership and Men. Pittsburgh: Carnegie Press.
Bar-Hillel, M. (1973). “On the subjective probability of compound events,” Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 9: 396–406.
Barrager, S. M., Judd, B. R. and North, D. W. (1976). “The Economic and Social Costs of Coal and Nuclear Electric Generation.” Report prepared for National Science Foundation, Office of the Sciences Adviser, Washington, D.C.
Beach, B. H. (1975). “Expert judgment about uncertainty: Bayesian decision making in realistic settings,” Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 14: 10–59.
Beach, B. H. (1974). “A note on the intrasubject similarity of subjective probabilities obtained by estimates and by bets,” Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 11: 250–252.
Beach, L. R. and Phillips, L. D. (1967). “Subjective probabilities inferred from estimates and bets,” Journal of Experimental Psychology, 75: 354–359.
Beach, L. R., Wise, J. A. and Barclay, S. (1970). “Sample proportions and subjective probability revisions,” Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 5: 183–190.
Betaque, N. E. and Gorry, A. (1971). “Automating judgmental decision making for a serious medical problem,” Management Science, B 17: 421–434.
Branthwaite, A. (1974). “A note on comparing three measures of subjective probability, their validity and reliability,” Acta Psychologica, 38: 337–342.
Brunswik, E. (1956). Perception and the representative design of psychological experiments, 2nd edition, Berkeley: University of California Press.
Chapman, L. J. and Chapman, J. P. (1967). “Genesis of popular but erroneous psychodiagnostic observations,” Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 72: 193–204.
Cohen, J. and Cheswick, E. J. (1970). “The doctrine of psychological chances,” British Journal of Psychology, 61: 323–334.
Cohen, J. and Hansel, C. M. (1957). “The nature of decisions in gambling: Equivalence of single and compound subjective probabilities,” Acta Psychologica, 13: 357–370.
DuCharme, W. M. and Donnell, M. L. (1973). “Intrasubject comparison of four response modes for ‘subjective probability’ assessment,” Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 10: 108–177.
Edwards, W. (1968). “Conservatism in Human Information Processing,” in Kleinmuntz, B., ed., Formal Representation of Human Judgment. New York: Wiley.
Edwards, W. (1962). “Dynamic decision theory and probabilistic information processing,” Human Factors, 4: 59–73.
Edwards, W. (1954). “The theory of decision making,” Psychological Bulletin, 51: 380–417.
Ellsberg, D. (1963). “Risk, ambiguity, and the Savage axioms: A reply,” Quarterly Journal of Economics, 77: 336–341.
Ellsberg, D. (1961). “Risk, ambiguity, and the Savage axioms,” Quarterly Journal of Economics, 75: 643–669.
Falk, R. (1975). “Perception of Randomness.” Ph.D. thesis, Department of Psychology, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel.
Fischhoff, B. (1978). “Behavioral Aspects of Cost-Benefit Analysis.” Paper read at a symposium on “Impacts and risks of energy strategies: Their analysis and role in management,” Swedish Academy of Sciences, The Beijer Institute, Stockholm, Sweden (September).
Fischhoff, B. (1977). “Cost benefit analysis and the art of motorcycle maintenance,” Policy Sciences, 8: 177–202.
Fischhoff, B. and Beyth, R. (1975). “‘I knew it would happen’. Remembered probabilities of once-future things,” Organizational Behavior and Human Performance. 13: 1–16.
Fischhoff, B., Slovic, P., Lichtenstein, S., Combs, B. and Read, S. (1976). “How safe is safe enough? A psychometric study of attitudes towards technological risks and benefits,” Eugene, Oregon: Decision Research Report, 76–1.
Glimell, H. R. and Holmgren, M. (1975). “Cognitive Style, Problem Solving Preference and Attitude to Computer Technology,” Göteborg Psychological Reports, 5: No. 21.
Goldberg, M. A. (1975). “On the inefficiency of being efficient,” Environment and Planning, 7: 921–939.
Goude, G. (1977). “Man—a Biological Being or a Technological Mistake?” Report 4–77, The Project Risk Generation and Risk Assessment in a Social Perspective, Department of Psychology, University of Göteborg, Sweden.
Green, D. M. and Swets, J. A. (1966). Signal detection theory and psychophysics. New York: Wiley.
Hogarth, R. M. (1976). “Training Probability Assessors: An Experimental Paradigm for the Basic Statistical Concepts,” in Pham Huu Tri, M. and Ponssard, J. P., eds., Théorie de la Décision et Applications. Paris: Fondation National pour l'Enseignement de la Gestion.
Hogarth, R. M. (1975). “Cognitive processes and the assessment of subjective probability distributions,” Journal of the American Statistical Association, 70: 271–289.
Howell, W. C. (1972). “Compounding uncertainty from internal sources,” Journal of Experimental Psychology, 95: 6–13.
Huber, G. P. (1974). “Methods for quantifying subjective probabilities and multiattribute utilities,” Decision Sciences, 5: 432–458.
Jensen, F. A. and Peterson, C. R. (1973). “Psychological effects of proper scoring rules,” Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 9: 307–317.
Kahneman, D. and Tversky, A. (1977). “Prospect Theory: An Analysis of Decision under Risk.” Paper read at a workshop on Risk Assessment and Evaluation, Eugene, Oregon (January).
Kahneman, D. and Tversky, A. (1973). “On the psychology of prediction,” Psychological Review, 80: 237–251.
Kahneman, D. and Tversky, A. (1972). “Subjective probability: a judgment of representativeness,” Cognitive Psychology, 3: 430–454.
Kuhnreuter, H. (1976). “Limited knowledge and insurance protection,” Public Policy, 24: 227–261.
Langer, E. J. (1975). “The illusion of control,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32: 311–328.
Lichtenstein, S. and Slovic, P. (1973). “Response-induced reversals of preference in gambling: An extended replication in Las Vegas,” Journal of Experimental Psychology, 101: 16–20.
Lichtenstein, S., Fischhoff, B. and Phillips, T. (1977). “Calibrations of Probabilities: The State of the Art,” in Jungermann, H. and Zeeuw, G. de, eds., Decision Making and Change in Human Affairs. Dordrecht, Holland: Reidel.
Marks, D. F. and Clarkson, J. K. (1973). “Conservatism as non-Bayesian performance: A reply to DeSwart,” Acta Psychologica, 37: 55–63.
Marks, D. F. and Clarkson, J. K. (1972). “An explanation of conservatism in the book-bag-and-pokerchips situation,” Acta Psychologica, 36: 145–160.
Moore, P. G. and Thomas, H. (1976). The Anatomy of Decisions. Hammondsworth: Penguin Books.
Moore, P. G. and Thomas, H. (1975). “Measuring uncertainty,” Omega, 3: 657–672.
Murphy, A. H. (1970). “Scoring rules in probability assessment and evaluation,” Acta Psychologica, 34: 273–286.
Nelkin, D. (1974). “The role of experts in a nuclear siting controversy,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 30: 29–36.
Pahner, P. D. (1976). “A psychological perspective of the nuclear energy controversy.” Laxenburg, Austria: International Institute for Applied Analysis Research Memorandum, RM-76–67.
Peterson, C. R. and Beach, L. R. (1967). “Man as an intuitive statistician,” Psychological Bulletin, 68: 29–46.
Phillips, L. D. and Wright, C. N. (1977). “Cultural Differences in Viewing Uncertainty and Assessing Probabilities,” in Jungermann, H. and Zeeuw, G. de, eds., Decision Making and Change in Human Affairs. Dordrecht, Holland: Reidel.
Pitz, G. F. (1974). “Subjective Probability Distributions for Imperfectly Known Quantities,” in Gregg, L. W., ed., Knowledge and Cognition. Hillsdale, N.J.: L. Erlbaum Associates.
Pitz, G. F. (1970). “On the processing of information: Probabilistic and otherwise,” Acta Psychologica, 34: 201–213.
Schum, D. A., Du Charme, W. M. and DePitts, K. E. (1973). “Research on human multistage probabilistic inference processes,” Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 10: 318–348.
Selvidge, J. (1975). “A Three-Step Procedure for Assigning Probabilities to Rare Events,” in Wendt, D. and Vlek, C., eds., Utility, Subjective Probability, and Human Decision Making. Dordrecht, Holland: Reidel.
Sjöberg, L. (1978). “Beliefs and Values as Attitude Components.” Paper read at an International Symposium on Social Psychophysics, Mannheim, Germany (October).
Sjöberg, L. (1976). “Self-Esteem and Information Processing.” Göteborg Psychological Reports, 6: No. 14.
Sjöberg, L. and Johnson, T. (1978). “Trying to give up smoking: A study of volitional break-downs,” Addictive Behaviors, 3: 149–164.
Sjöberg, L. and Persson, L. O. (1977). “A Study of Attempts by Obese Patients to Regulate Eating.” Göteborg Psychological Reports, 7, No. 12.
Sjöberg, L. and Samsonowitz, V. (1978). “Volitional problems in trying to quit smoking,” Scandanavian Journal of Psychology, 19: 205–212.
Sjöberg, L., Samsonowitz, V. and Olsson, G. (1978). “Volitional Problems in Alcohol Abuse.” Göteborg Psychological Reports, 8, No. 5.
Sjöberg, L., Torell, G. and Adriansson, L. (1978). “The Structure of Energy Attitudes and Beliefs: An Interview Study.” Paper read at a symposium on “Impacts and risks of energy strategies: Their analysis and role in management,” Swedish Academy of Sciences, The Beijer Institute, Stockholm, Sweden (September).
Slovic, P. (1966). “Cue consistency and cue utilization in judgment,” American Journal of Psychology, 79: 427–434.
Slovic, P. and Lichtenstein, S. (1971). “Comparison of Bayesian and regression approaches to the study of information processing in judgment,“ Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 6: 649–144.
Slovic, P., Fischhoff, B. and Lichtenstein, S. (1977). “Behavioral decision theory,” Annual Review of Psychology, 28, 1–39.
Slovic, P., Fischhoff, B. and Lichtenstein, S. (1976a). “Cognitive Processes and Societal Risk Taking,” in Carroll, J. S. and Payne, J. W., eds., Cognition and Social Behavior. Potomac, Md., L. Erlbaum Associates.
Slovic, P., Fischhoff, B. and Lichtenstein, S. (1976b). “The Certainty Illusion.” Oregon Research Institute Research Bulletin, 16, No. 4.
Slovic, P., Lichtenstein, S. and Fischhoff, B. (1978). “Images of Disaster: Perception and Acceptance of Risks from Nuclear Power.” Paper read at a symposium on “Impacts and risks of energy strategies: Their analysis and role in management,” Swedish Academy of Sciences, The Beijer Institute, Stockholm, Sweden (September).
Slovic, P., Fischhoff, B., Lichtenstein, S., Combs, B. and Layman, M. (1976). “Misperceived Frequencies of Low Probability, Lethal Events.” Oregon Research Institute Research Bulletin, 16, No. 2.
Spetzler, C. S. and Staël von Holstein, C.-A. (1972). “Probability Encoding in Decision Analysis.” Technical Report, Stanford Research Institute, Menlo Park, California.
Starr, C. (1969). “Social benefit versus technological risk,” Science, 165: 1232–1238.
Svenson, O. (1978a). “Cognitive processes in decision making,” Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, in press.
Svenson, O. (1978b). “Risks of road transportation in a psychological perspective,” Accident Analysis and Prevention, 10: 267–280.
Svenson, O. (1973). “Analysis of Strategies in Subjective Probability Inferences as Evidenced in Continuous Verbal Reports and Numerical Responses.” Reports from the Psychological Laboratories, University of Stockholm, Sweden, No. 396.
Swets, J. A. (1964). Signal Detection and Recognition by Human Observers. New York: Wiley.
Thedéen, T. (1977). “Presentation of Risk. (Presentation av Risk).” The Project Risk Generation and Risk Assessment in a Social Perspective, Department of Psychology, University of Göteborg, Sweden.
Tolman, E. C. (1932). Purposive Behavior in Animals and Men. New York: Century.
Tversky, A. (1975). “Assessing uncertainty,” Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, 36 B: 148–159.
Tversky, A. and Kahneman, D. (1974). “Judgment under certainty: Heuristics and biases,” Science, 185: 1124–1131.
Tversky, A. and Kahneman, D. (1973). “Availability: A heuristic for judging frequency and probability,” Cognitive Psychology, 5: 207–232.
Tversky, A. and Kahneman, D. (1971). “The belief in the law of small numbers,” Psychological Bulletin, 76: 105–110.
Wallsten, T. S. (1977). “Measurement and Interpretation of Beliefs,” in Jungermann, H. and Zeeuw, G. de, eds., Decision making and Change in Human Affairs. Dordrecht, Holland: Reidel.
Wheeler, G. E. and Edwards, W. (1975). “Misaggregation Explains Conservative Inference about Normally Distributed Populations.” Social Science Research Institute, University of Southern California, SSRI Research Report, 75-11.
Winkler, R. L. and Murphy, A. H. (1973). “Experiments in the laboratory and the real world,” Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 10: 252–270.
Winkler, R. L. and Murphy, A. H. (1968). “lsGood’ probability assessors,” Journal of Applied Meteorology, 7: 751–758.
Wise, J. A. (1970). “Estimates and scaled judgments of subjective probabilities,” Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 5: 85–92.
Wright, G. N. and Phillips, L. D. (1979). “Individual Differences in Probabilistic Thinking.” in Sjøberg, L., Tyszka, T. and Wise, J., eds., Decision Processes and Decision Analysis. Lund, Sweden: Doxa.
Yates, J. F. and Zukowski, L. G. (1975). “The Anatomy and Consequences of Ambiguity in Decision Making.” MMPP 75-2, Department of Psychology, University of Michigan.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Additional information
This study was supported by a grant from the Committee for Future Oriented Research, Stockholm, Sweden.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Sjöber, L. Strength of belief and risk. Policy Sci 11, 39–57 (1979). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00143836
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00143836