Abstract
Increased ambient carbon dioxide (CO2) has been found to ameliorate water stress in the majority of species studied. The results of many studies indicate that lower evaporative flux density is associated with high CO2-induced stomatal closure. As a result of decreases in evaporative flux density and increases in net photosynthesis, also found to occur in high CO2 environments, plants have often been shown to maintain higher water use efficiencies when grown at high CO2 than when grown in normal, ambient air. Plants grown at high CO2 have also been found to maintain higher total water potentials, to increase biomass production, have larger root-to-shoot ratios, and to be generally more drought resistant (through avoidance mechanisms) than those grown at ambient CO2 levels. High CO2-induced changes in plant structure (i.e., vessel or tracheid anatomy, leaf specific conductivity) may be associated with changes in vulnerability to xylem cavitation or in environmental conditions in which runaway embolism is likely to occur. Further study is needed to resolve these important issues. Methodology and other CO2 effects on plant water relations are discussed.
Similar content being viewed by others
Abbreviations
- A:
-
net photosynthesis
- Ca :
-
ambient [CO2]
- Ci :
-
internal [CO2]
- E:
-
evaporative flux density
- g1 :
-
leaf conductance
- gs :
-
stomatal conductance
- LSC:
-
leaf specific conductivity
- IRGA:
-
infrared gas analyzer
- LAI:
-
leaf area index
- PAR:
-
photosynthetically active radiation
- Ψ:
-
total plant water potential
- Ψsoil :
-
soil water potential
- Ψs :
-
solute potential
- Ψpt :
-
turgor pressure potential
- Ψpx :
-
xylem pressure potential
- RH:
-
relative humidity
- R : S:
-
root to shoot ratio
- RWC:
-
relative water content
- SLA:
-
specific leaf area
- SLW:
-
specific leaf weight
- SPAC:
-
soil-plant-atmosphere-continuum
- SWC:
-
soil water content
- VPD:
-
vapor pressure deficit
- WUE:
-
water use efficiency
References
Akita, S. & Moss, D. N. 1972. Differential stomatal response between C3 and C4 species to atmospheric CO2 concentration and light. Crop Sci. 12: 789–793.
Arnone, J. A. & Gordon, J. C. 1990. Effect of nodulation, nitrogen fixation and CO2 enrichment on the physiology, growth and dry mass allocation of seedlings ofAlnus rubra Bong. New Phytol. 116: 55–66.
Barr, A. G., King, K. M., Thurtell, G. W. & Graham, M. E. D. 1990. Humidity and soil water influence the transpiration response of Maize to CO2 enrichment. Can. J. Plant. Sci. 70: 941–948.
Beadle, C. L., Jarvis, P. G. & Neilson, R. E. 1979. Leaf conductance as related to xylem water potential and carbon dioxide concentration in Sitka spruce. Physiol. Plant. 45: 158–166.
Byrne, G. F., Begg, J. E., & Hansen, G. K. 1977. Cavitation and resistance to water flow in plant roots. Agric. Meteorol. 18: 21–25.
Carlson, R. W. & Bazzaz, F. A. 1980. The effects of elevated CO2 concentrations on growth, photosynthesis, transpiration, and water use efficiency of plants. In: Singh, J. J. & Deepak, A. (eds). Environmental and climatic impact of coal utilization pp. 609–623. Academic Press, New York.
Chaudhuri, U. N., Kirkham, M. B., Kanemasu, E. T. 1990. Root growth of winter wheat under elevated carbon dioxide and drought. Crop Sci. 30: 853–857.
Cheung, Y. N. S., Tyree, M. T., Dainty, J. 1976. Some possible sources of error in determining bulk elastic moduli and other parameters from pressure-volume curves of shoots and leaves. Can. J. Bot. 54: 758–765.
Conroy, J., Barlow, E. W. R. & Bevege, D. I. 1986. Response ofPinus radiata seedlings to carbon dioxide enrichment at different levels of water and phosphorous: growth, morphology and anatomy. Ann. Bot. 57: 165–177.
Conroy, J. P., Küppers, M., Küppers, B., Virgona, J. & Barlow, E. W. R. 1988a. The influence of CO2 enrichment, phosphorous deficiency and water stress on the growth, conductance and water use ofPinus radiata D. Don. Plant, Cell. & Environ. 11: 91–98.
Conroy, J. P., Virgona, J. M., Smillie, R. M. & Barlow, E. W. 1988b. Influence of drought acclimation and CO2 enrichment on osmotic adjustment and chlorophyll a fluorescence of sunflower during drought. Plant Physiol. 86: 1108–1115.
Conroy, J. P., Milham, P. J., Mazur, M. & Barlow, E. W. R. 1990. Growth, dry weight partitioning and wood properties of Pinus radiata D. Don after 2 years of CO2 enrichment. Plant, Cell & Environ. 13: 329–337.
Dahlman, R. C., Strain, B. R. & Rogers, H. H. 1985. Research on the response of vegetation to elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide. J. Environ. Qual. 14: 1–8.
Del, Castillo, D., Acock, B., Reddy, V. R. & Acock, M. C. 1989. Elongation and branching of roots on soybean plants in a carbon dioxide-enriched environment. Agron. J. 81: 692–695.
Dixon, M. A., Butt, J. A., Murr, D. P., Tsujita, M. J. 1988. Water relations of cut greenhouse roses: the relationship between stem water potential, hydraulic conductance and cavitation. Sci Hort. 36: 109–118.
Dixon, M. A., Tyree, M. T. 1984. A new stem hygrometer, corrected for temperature gradients and calibrated against the pressure bomb. Plant Cell & Environ. 7: 693–697.
Downton, W. J. S., Grant, W. J. R. & Chacko, E. K. 1990. Effects of elevated carbon dioxide on the photosynthesis and early growth of mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.). Sci. Hort. 44: 215–225.
Frederick, J. R., Alm, D. M., Hesketh, J. D. & Below, F. E. 1990. Overcoming drought-induced decreases in soybean leaf photosynthesis by measuring with CO2-enriched air. Photo. Res. 25: 49–57.
Goudriaan, J. & de, Ruiter, H. E. 1983. Plant growth in response to CO2 enrichment, at two levels of nitrogen and phosphorous supply. 1. Dry matter, leaf area and development. Neth. J. Agric. Sci. 31: 157–169.
den, Hertog, J., Stulen, I., Lambers, H. 1992. Assimilation, respiration and allocation of carbon in Plantago major as affected by atmospheric CO2 levels: a case study. Vegetatio 104/105: 369–378.
Higginbotham, K. O., Mayo, J. M., L'Hirondelle, S. & Krystofiak, D. K. 1985. Physiological ecology of lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) in an enriched CO2 environment. Can. J. For. Res. 15: 417–421.
Hollinger, D. Y. 1987. Gas exchange and dry matter allocation responses to elevation of atmospheric CO2 concentration in seedlings of three tree species. Tree Physiol. 3: 193–202.
Idso, S. B. 1988. Three phases of plant response to atmospheric CO2 enrichment. Plant Physiol. 87: 5–7.
Idso, S. B., Kimball, B. A., Anderson, M. G. & Szarek, S. R. 1986. Growth response of a succulent plant,Agave vilmoriniana, to elevated CO2. Plant Physiol. 80: 796–797.
Idso, S. B., Kimball, B. A. & Mauney, J. R. 1987. Atmospheric carbon dioxide enrichment effects on cotton midday foliage temperature: Implications for plant water use efficiency. Agron. J. 79: 667–672.
Idso, S. B., Kimball, B. A. & Mauney, J. R. 1988. Effects of atmospheric CO2 enrichment on root: shoot ratios of carrot, radish, cotton and soybean. Agric. Ecosystems Environ. 21: 293–299.
Imai, K. & Coleman, D. F. 1983. Elevated atmospheric partial pressure of carbon dioxide and dry matter production of konjak (Amorphophallus konjak K. Koch). Photo. Res. 4: 331–336.
Jones, P., Allen, L. H., Jones, J. W., Boote, K. J. & Campbell, W. J. 1984. Soybean canopy growth, photosynthesis, and transpiration responses to whole-season carbon dioxide enrichment. Agron. J. 76: 633–637.
Khan, M. A. H. & Madsen, A. 1986. Leaf diffusive resistance and water economy in carbon dioxide-enriched rice plants. New Phytol. 104: 215–223.
Kramer, P. J. 1981. Carbon dioxide concentration, photosynthesis, and dry matter production. Bioscience 31: 29–33.
Kramer, P. J. 1983. Water relations of plants. Academic press, Orlando, San Diego, New York.
Leadley, P. W., Reynolds, J. A., Thomas, J. F. & Reynolds, J. F. 1987. Effects of CO2 enrichment on internal leaf surface area in soybeans. Bot. Gaz. 148: 137–140.
Luxmoore, R. J., O'Neill, E. G., Ells, J. M. & Rogers, H. H. 1986. Nutrient uptake and growth responses of Virginia pine to elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide. J. Environ. Qual. 15: 244–251.
Marks, S. & Strain, B. R. 1989. Effects of drought and CO2 enrichment on competition between two old-field perennials. New Phytol. 111: 181–186.
Morison, J. I. L. 1985. Sensitivity of stomata and water use efficiency to high CO2. Plant, Cell and Environ. 8: 467–474.
Morison, J. I. L. & Gifford, R. M. 1983. Stomatal sensitivity to carbon dioxide and humidity. Plant Physiol. 71: 789–796.
Nijs, I., Impens, I. & Behaeghe, T. 1988. Effects of rising atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration on gas exchange and growth of perennial ryegrass. Photosynthetica 22: 44–50.
Nijs, I., Impens, I. & Behaeghe, T. 1989a. Effects of long-term atmospheric CO2 concentration onLolium perenne andTrifolium repens canopies in the course of a terminal drought stress period. Can. J. Bot. 67: 2720–2725.
Nijs, I., Impens, I. & Behaeghe, T. 1989b. Leaf and canopy responses ofLolium perenne to long-term elevated atmospheric carbon-dioxide concentration. Planta 177: 312–320.
Norby, R. J. & O'Neill, E. G. 1989. Growth dynamics and water use of seedlings ofQuercus alba L. on CO2-enriched atmospheres. New Phytol. 111: 491–500.
Norby, R. J., O'Neill, E. G. & Luxmoore, R. J. 1986. Effects of atmospheric CO2 enrichment on the growth and mineral nutrition ofQuercus alba seedlings in nutrient-poor soil. Plant Physiol. 82: 83–89.
Oberbauer, S. F., Strain, B. R. & Fetcher, N. 1985. Effect of CO2-enrichment on seedling physiology and growth of two tropical tree species. Physiol. Plant. 65: 352–356.
Oechel, W. C. & Strain, B. R. 1985. 6. Native species responses to increased atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration. In: Strain, B. R. & Cure, J. D. (eds), Direct effects of increasing CO2 on vegetation. pp. 117–154, United States Dept. of Energy, DOE/ER-0238.
Pallas, J. E.jr. 1965. Transpiration and stomatal opening with changes in carbon dioxide content of the air. Science 147: 169–171.
Peñuelas, J. & Matamala, R. 1990. Changes in N and S leaf content, stomatal density and specific leaf area of 14 plant species during the last three centuries of CO2 increase. J. Exp. Bot. 41: 1119–1124.
Reekie, E. G. & Bazzaz, F. A. 1989. Competition and patterns of resource use among seedlings of five tropical trees grown at ambient and elevated CO2. Oecologia 79: 212–222.
Rogers, H. H. 1983. Response of agronomic and forest species to elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide. Science 220: 428–429.
Rogers, H. H., Bingham, G. E., Cure, J. D., Smith, J. M. & Surano, K. A. 1983. Responses of selected plant species to elevated carbon dioxide in the field. J. Environ. Qual. 12: 569–574.
Rogers, H. H., Sionit, N., Cure, J. D., Smith, J. M. & Bingham, G. E. 1984. Influence of elevated carbon dioxide on water relations of soybeans. Plant Physiol. 74: 233–238.
Rosenberg, N. J. 1981. The increasing CO2 concentration in the atmosphere and its implication on agricultural productivity. Climatic Change 3: 265–279.
Rozema, J., Dorel, F., Janissen, R., Lenssen, E., Broekman, R., Arp, W. & Drake, B. G. 1991A. Effect of elevated atmospheric CO2 on growth, photosynthesis and water relations of salt marsh grass species. Aquat. Bot. 39: 45–55.
Rozema, J., Lensen, G. M., Arp, W. J. & van de, Staaij, J. W. M. 1991B. Global change, the impact of the greenhouse effect (atmospheric CO2 enrichment) and the increased UV-B radiation responses to environmental stresses, pp. 220–231. Kluwer Academic Publications, The Netherlands.
Rozema, J. 1993. Responses to atmospheric CO2 enrichment: interactions with some soil and atmospheric conditions. Vegetatio 104/105: 173–190.
Sasek, T. W. & Strain, B. R. 1989. Effects of carbon dioxide enrichment on the expansion and size of kudzu (Pueraria lobata) leaves. Weed Sci. 37: 23–28.
Sionit, N. & Patterson, D. T. 1985. Responses of C4 grasses to atmospheric CO2 enrichment. II. Effect of water stress. Crop Sci. 25: 533–537.
Sionit, N., Strain, B. R., Hellmers, H. & Kramer, P. J. 1981. Effects of atmospheric CO2 concentration and water stress on water relations of wheat. Bot. Gaz. 142: 191–196.
Sionit, N., Strain, B. R., Hellmers, H., Riechers, G. H. & Jaeger, C. H. 1985. Long-term atmospheric CO2 enrichment affects the growth and development ofLiquidambar styraciflua andPinus taeda seedlings. Can. J. For. Res. 15: 468–471.
Sperry, J. S., Tyree, M. T., Donnelly, J. A. 1988. Vulnerability of xylem to embolism in a mangrove vs an inland species of Rizophoraceae. Physiol. Plant. 74: 276–283.
Sperry, J. S., Tyree, M. T. 1988. Mechanism of water stress-induced xylem embolism. Plant Physiol. 88: 581–587.
Sperry, J. S., Tyree, M. T. 1990. Water-stress-induced xylem embolism in three species of conifers. Plant, Cell & Environ. 13: 427–436.
Szarek, S. R., Holthe, P. A. & Ting, I. P. 1987. Minor physiological response to elevated CO2 by the CAM plantAgave vilmoriniana. Plant Physiol. 83: 938–940.
Teskey, R. O., Fites, J. A., Samuelson, L. J. & Bongarten, B. C. 1986. Stomatal and nonstomatal limitations to net photosynthesis inPinus taeda L. under different environmental conditions. Tree Physiol. 2: 131–142.
Thomas, J. F. & Harvey, C. N. 1983. Leaf anatomy of four species grown under continuous CO2 enrichment. Bot. Gaz. 144: 303–309.
Tolley, L. C. & Strain, B. R. 1984a. Effects of CO2 enrichment on growth ofLiquidambar styraciflua andPinus taeda seedlings under different irradiance levels. Can. J. For. Res. 14: 343–350.
Tolley, L. C. & Strain, B. R. 1984b. Effects of CO2 enrichment and water stress on growth ofLiquidambar styraciflua andPinus taeda seedlings. Can. J. Bot. 62: 2135–2139.
Tyree, M. T. 1976. Negative turgor pressure in plant cells: fact or fallacy? Can. J. Bot. 54: 2738–2746.
Tyree, M. T. 1988. A dynamic model for water flow in a single tree: evidence that models must account for hydraulic architecture. Tree Physiol. 4: 195–217.
Tyree, M. T. 1989. Cavitation in trees and the hydraulic sufficiency of woody stems. Annales des Sciences Forestières 46 (suppl.): 330–337.
Tyree, M. T. & Dixon, M. A. 1986. Water stress induced cavitation and embolism in some woody plants. Physiol. Plant. 66: 397–405.
Tyree, M. T. & Ewers, F. W. 1991. The hydraulic architecture of trees and other woody plants. New Phytol. 119: 345–360.
Tyree, M. T., Fiscus, E. L., Wullschleger, S. D. & Dixon, M. A. 1986. Detection of xylem cavitation in corn under field conditions. Plant Physiol. 82: 597–599.
Tyree, M. T. & Jarvis, P. G. 1982. Water in tissues and cells. In: Nobel, P. S., Osmond, C. B., Ziegler, H., (eds) Encyclopedia of Plant Physiology (N. S.) Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York. vol 12B pp 37–77.
Tyree, M. T., MacGregor, M. E., Petrov, A., Upenieks, M. I. 1978. A comparison of systematic errors between the Richards and Hammel methods of measuring tissue-water relations parameters. Can. J. Bot. 56: 2153–2161.
Tyree, M. T., Richter, H. 1981. Alternative methods of analyzing water potential isotherms; some cautions and clarifications. I. The impact of non-ideality and of some experimental errors. J. Exp. Bot. 32: 643–653.
Tyree, M. T., Richter, H. 1982. Alternate methods of analyzing water potential isotherms: some cautions and clarifications. II. Curvilinearity in water potential isotherms. Can. J. Bot. 60: 911–916.
Tyree, M. T., Snyderman, D. A., Wilmot, T. R., & Machado, J. L. 1991. Water relations and hydraulic architecture of a tropical tree (Schefflera morototoni): Data models and a comparison to two temperate species (Acer saccharum andThuja occidentalis). Plant Physiol. 96: 1105–1113.
Tyree, M. T. & Sperry, J. S. 1988. Do woody plants operate near the point of catastrophic xylem dysfunction caused by dynamic water stress: Answers from a model. Plant Physiol. 88: 574–580.
Tyree, M. T. & Sperry, J. S. 1989. Vulnerability of xylem to cavitation and embolism. Annu. Rev. Plant Phys. Mol. Bio., 40: 19–38.
Tyree, M. T. & Sperry, J. S. 1989b. Characterization and propagation of acoustic emission signals in woody plants: towards an improved acoustic emission counter. Plant, Cell and Environ. 12: 371–382.
Tyree, M. T. & Wilmot, T. R. 1990. Errors in the calculation of evaporation and leaf conductance in steady-state porometry: The importance of accurate measurement of leaf temperature. Can. J. For. Res. 20: 1031–1035.
Tyree, M. T. & Yianoulis, P. 1980. The site of water evaporation from substomatal cavities, liquid path resistances, and hydroactive stomatal closure. Ann. Bot. 46: 175–193.
Wray, S. M. & Strain, B. R. 1986. Response of two old field perennials to interactions of CO2 enrichment and drought stress. Amer. J. Bot. 73: 1486–1491.
Wong, S. C. 1979. Elevated atmospheric partial pressure of CO2 and plant growth. Oecologia 44: 68–74.
Woodward, F. I. 1987. Stomatal numbers are sensitive to increases in CO2 from preindustrial levels. Nature 327: 617–618.
Wulff, R. D. & Strain, B. R. 1982. Effects of CO2 enrichment on growth and photosynthesis inDesmodium paniculatum. Can. J. Bot., 60: 1084–1091.
Yianoulis, P, Tyree, M. T. 1984. A model to investigate the effects of evaporative cooling on the pattern of evaporation in sub-stomatal cavities. Ann. Bot. 53: 189–206.
Zimmerman, M. H. & Brown, C. L. 1971. Trees structure and function. Springer-Verlag, New York, Heidelberg, Berlin.
Ziska, L. H., Hogan, K. P., Smith, A. P. & Drake, B. G. 1991. Growth and photosynthetic response of nine tropical species with long-term exposure to elevated carbon dioxide Oecologia 86: 383–389.
CollectingPseudobomax branches for measurement of embolimsm and cavitation. (Barro Colorado Island, Panama).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Tyree, M.T., Alexander, J.D. Plant water relations and the effects of elevated CO2: a review and suggestions for future research. Vegetatio 104, 47–62 (1993). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00048144
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00048144