Abstract
Shashi Jayakumar, Benjamin Ang and Nur Diyanah Anwar analyse Singapore’s efforts combating online falsehoods and disinformation. They highlight the recently passed Protection from Online Falsehoods and Misinformation Act (POFMA) which makes it “an offence to intentionally communicate a false statement of fact, with the knowledge that it would cause the harms listed”, and which uniquely enables the authorities to compel social media platforms to publish rebuttals of specific falsehoods, called “Targeted Corrections Directions”. Additionally, they highlight the non-legal initiatives the Singapore government has taken to counter disinformation and safeguard social cohesion, via programmes such as the National Framework on Information, Media and Cyber Literacy and S.U.R.E. This creates guidelines for public organizations to spot fake news, and fact-checking resources teaching individuals to better judge the reliability of news sources. Their chapter concludes by highlighting the need to review the strategies currently used, and how laws, programmes and policies must be future-proof.
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Notes
- 1.
For an unpacking and exploration of these, see Norman Vasu, Benjamin Ang, Terri-Anne Teo, Shashi Jayakumar, Muhammad Faizal, and Juhi Ahuja, Fake News: National Security in the Post-Truth Era, RSIS Policy Report, January 2018. https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/PR180313_Fake-News_WEB.pdf.
- 2.
See for example Scott Shane, ‘The Fake Americans Russia Created to Influence the Election’, The New York Times, 7 September 2017. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/07/us/politics/russia-facebook-twitter-election.html; Gabe O’Connor, ‘How Russian Twitter Bots Pumped Out Fake News During the 2016 Election’, NPR, 3 April 2017. https://www.npr.org/sections/alltechconsidered/2017/04/03/522503844/how-russian-twitter-bots-pumped-out-fake-news-during-the-2016-election.
- 3.
In July 2018, Facebook announced it had identified a political influence campaign that was potentially built to disrupt the midterm elections, removing dozens of profiles and accounts attempting foment social divisions. This campaign bore the hallmark of the Kremlin-linked Internet Research Agency, allegedly also responsible for attempts to influence the 2016 US presidential election.
- 4.
There is a vast, and still growing literature on this topic. See generally Keir Giles, ‘Russia’s “New” Tools for Confronting the West: Continuity and Innovation in Moscow’s Exercise of Power’, Chatham House, March 2016. See also the reports regularly published by the European Values Think Tank. https://www.kremlinwatch.eu/#briefing.
- 5.
‘Saracen Hanya Satu dari Ribuan Kelompok Penyebar Hate Speech’ (Saracen is a hate speech group), Kompasiana, 28 August 2017. https://www.kompasiana.com/opajappy/saracen-hanyasatu-dari-ribuan-kelompok-penyebar-hate-speach_59a41c18d59a26574176a002; see also ‘Video: Jokowi Cina-Kristen? Ini Buktinya (Video: Jokowi is Chinese-Christian? Here’s proof)’, Tribun News, 12 June 2014. http://www.tribunnews.com/nasional/2014/06/12/video-jokowi-cina-kristen-ini-buktinya.
- 6.
Merlyna Lim, ‘Beyond Fake News: Social Media and Market-Driven Political Campaigns,’ The Conversation, 5 September 2017. https://theconversation.com/beyond-fake-news-social-media-and-market-driven-politicalcampaigns-78346.
- 7.
Ross Tapsell, ‘When They Go Low, We Go Lower’, The New York Times, 16 April 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/16/opinion/indonesia-election-fake-news.html; ‘Backstory: Hunting for Fake News and Trolls in Indonesia's Elections’, Reuters, 29 April 2019. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-indonesia-election-backstory/backstory-hunting-for-fake-news-and-trolls-in-indonesias-elections-idUSKCN1S50KA.
- 8.
G. Haciyakupoglu, ‘Southeast Asia’s Battle Against Disinformation’, The Diplomat, 12 February 2019. https://thediplomat.com/2019/02/southeast-asias-battle-against-disinformation/.
- 9.
Jon Russell, ‘Twitter Doesn’t Care That Someone Is Building a Bot Army in Southeast Asia’, TechCrunch, 20 April 2018. https://techcrunch.com/2018/04/20/twitter-doesnt-care-that-someone-is-building-a-bot-army-in-southeast-asia/.
- 10.
‘#BotSpot: Bots Target Malaysian Elections’, DFRLab, 21 April 2018. https://medium.com/dfrlab/botspot-bots-target-malaysian-elections-785a3c25645b.
- 11.
‘4.83 Million Singaporeans Are Now Online’, Singapore Business Review, 30 January 2018. https://sbr.com.sg/information-technology/news/483-million-singaporeans-are-now-online. Internet user penetration rates are expected to increase to 97% in 2023. https://www.statista.com/statistics/975069/internet-penetration-rate-in-singapore/.
- 12.
‘TRS Co-Founder Yang Kaiheng Jailed 8 Months for Sedition’, The Straits Times, 28 June 2018. https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/courts-crime/trs-co-founder-yang-kaiheng-jailed-8-months-for-sedition.
- 13.
‘TRS Ad Revenue “Used to Pay Mortgage on Couple’s Apartment”’, The Straits Times, 29 March 2016. https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/courts-crime/trs-ad-revenue-used-to-pay-mortgage-on-couples-apartment.
- 14.
‘Fake News Tells More Than Just Lies’, TODAY, 29 March 2017. https://www.todayonline.com/singapore/fake-news-tells-more-just-lies.
- 15.
‘Battle Against Fake News: Rise of the Truth-Seekers’, The Straits Times, 25 June 2017. https://www.straitstimes.com/opinion/battle-against-fake-news-rise-of-the-truth-seekers.
- 16.
Deliberate Online Falsehoods: Challenges and Implications, Green Paper by the Ministry of Communications and Information and the Ministry of Law, Misc. 10 of 2018, Presented to Parliament by the Minister for Law, 5 January 18. https://www.mlaw.gov.sg/files/news/press-releases/2018/01/Annexe%20A%20-%20Green%20Paper%20on%20Deliberate%20Online%20Falsehoods.pdf.
- 17.
- 18.
For a flavor, see ‘“We Made a Wrong Call”: Facebook Says It Should Have Informed Users Earlier on Cambridge Analytica Breach’, ChannelNewsAsia, 22 March 2018. https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/we-made-a-wrong-call-facebook-says-it-should-have-informed-users-10067144. Milner had earlier in February testified before the UK Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Committee examining these issues. See https://www.c-span.org/video/?440521-7/british-committee-hearing-fake-news-facebook-panel.
- 19.
Mark Cenite, ‘Commentary: Someone Needs to do Something About Facebook—But What?’, ChannelNewsAsia, 23 November 2018. https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/commentary/deliberate-online-falsehoods-fake-news-facebook-select-committee-10957450.
- 20.
Report of the Select Committee on Deliberate Online Falsehoods—Causes Consequences and Countermeasures. Presented to Parliament on 19 September 2018. https://sprs.parl.gov.sg/selectcommittee/selectcommittee/download?id=1&type=subReport.
- 21.
‘Select Committee on Fake News: Summary of Panel’s 22 Suggestions’, The Straits Times, 20 September 2018. https://www.straitstimes.com/politics/select-committee-on-fake-news-summary-of-panels-22-suggestions.
- 22.
‘Why Academics Should Not Fear Online Falsehood Law’, The Straits Times, 9 May 2019. https://www.straitstimes.com/opinion/why-academics-should-not-fear-online-falsehood-law.
- 23.
‘Measures Targeting Online Falsehoods Aim to “Remedy” Impact, “Not Punish Wrongdoers”: Edwin Tong’, ChannelNewsAsia, 7 May 2019. https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/online-falsehoods-bill-aim-to-remedy-impact-edwin-tong-11511674.
- 24.
Protection from Online Falsehoods and Manipulation Act 2019 (Act 18 of 2019). https://sso.agc.gov.sg/Acts-Supp/18-2019/Published/20190625?DocDate=20190625.
- 25.
Harms listed include: (i) be prejudicial to the security of Singapore or any part of Singapore; (ii) be prejudicial to public health, public safety, public tranquillity or public finances; (iii) be prejudicial to the friendly relations of Singapore with other countries; (iv) influence the outcome of an election to the office of President, a general election of Members of Parliament, a by-election of a Member of Parliament, or a referendum; (v) incite feelings of enmity, hatred or ill-will between different groups of persons; or (vi) diminish public confidence in the performance of any duty or function of, or in the exercise of any power by, the Government, an Organ of the State, a statutory board, or a part of the Government, an Organ of the State or a statutory board.
- 26.
Section 21, Protection from Online Falsehoods and Manipulation Act 2019 (Act 18 of 2019).
- 27.
‘Parliament: Law Against Online Falsehoods Will Not Stifle Free Speech, Say Ministers’, The Straits Times, 1 April 2019. https://www.straitstimes.com/politics/parliament-law-against-online-falsehoods-will-not-stifle-speech-ministers.
- 28.
Facebook, ‘Rights Groups Hit Out at Singapore’s Fake News Bill’, Reuters, 1 April 2019. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-singapore-politics-fakenews/facebook-rights-groups-hit-out-at-singapores-fake-news-bill-idUSKCN1RD279.
- 29.
‘Proposed Anti-fake News Law “Works for Singapore” Despite Criticism: PM Lee’, ChannelNewsAsia, 9 April 2019. https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/proposed-anti-fake-news-law-works-for-singapore-pm-lee-11425686.
- 30.
Second Reading Speech by Minister for Law, K. Shanmugam on the Protection from Online Falsehoods and Manipulation Bill, 7 May 2009. https://www.mlaw.gov.sg/news/parliamentary-speeches/second-reading-speech-by-minister-for-law-k-shanmugam-on-the-protection-from-online-falsehoods-and-manipulation-bill.
- 31.
Second Reading Speech by Minister for Law, K. Shanmugam on the Protection from Online Falsehoods and Manipulation Bill, 7 May 2009.
- 32.
‘Government Makes Initial Decision on Falsehood but Courts Are Final Arbiter of Truth: Shanmugam’, The Straits Times, 2 April 2019. https://www.straitstimes.com/politics/govt-makes-initial-decision-on-falsehood-but-courts-are-final-arbiter-of-truth-k-shanmugam.
- 33.
‘Proposed Anti-fake News Law “Works for Singapore” Despite Criticism: PM Lee’, ChannelNewsAsia, 9 April 2019. https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/proposed-anti-fake-news-law-works-for-singapore-pm-lee-11425686.
- 34.
‘Singapore’s Fake News Law: Protecting the Truth, or Restricting Free Debate?’, South China Morning Post, 21 December 2019. https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/politics/article/3043034/singapores-fake-news-law-protecting-truth-or-restricting-free.
- 35.
‘Measures Targeting Online Falsehoods Aim to “Remedy” Impact, “Not Punish Wrongdoers”: Edwin Tong’, Channel News Asia, 7 May 2019. https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/online-falsehoods-bill-aim-to-remedy-impact-edwin-tong-11511674.
- 36.
‘Facebook Urges Singapore Government to Respect “Free Expression” as It Complies with Fake News Law’, South China Morning Post, 30 November 2019. https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/politics/article/3040045/facebook-urges-singapore-government-respect-free-expression-it.
- 37.
‘Singapore’s Fake News Law: Protecting the Truth, or Restricting Free Debate?’, South China Morning Post, 21 December 2019. https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/politics/article/3043034/singapores-fake-news-law-protecting-truth-or-restricting-free.
- 38.
‘Why Academics Should Not Fear Online Falsehood Law’, The Straits Times, 9 May 2019. https://www.straitstimes.com/opinion/why-academics-should-not-fear-online-falsehood-law.
- 39.
‘Singapore Government Officials Rebut Bloomberg, South China Morning Post Articles on Pofma’, The Straits Times, 31 December 2019. https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/government-officials-rebut-bloomberg-south-china-morning-post-articles-on-pofma.
- 40.
‘Parliament: Law Against Online Falsehoods Will Not Stifle Free Speech, Say Ministers’, The Straits Times, 1 April 2019. https://www.straitstimes.com/politics/parliament-law-against-online-falsehoods-will-not-stifle-speech-ministers.
- 41.
Ng, M. ‘Pofma invoked against website that claimed cover-up on coronavirus case numbers.’ https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/pofma-invoked-against-website-that-claimed-cover-up-on-case-numbers.
- 42.
CNA. ‘Singapore States Times issued correction direction over post alleging COVID-19 transmission in schools’. https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/singapore-states-times-correction-direction-pofma-covid19-school-12705166.
- 43.
Armstrong, V. ‘COVID-19 in Singapore: A Fake News Frenzy’. https://www.taylorvinters.com/article/covid-19-in-singapore-a-fake-news-frenzy.
- 44.
Jie, P., ‘In The Face of Covid-19, POFMA Has Proven As Effective As A ‘Wet Noodle’. https://www.ricemedia.co/current-affairs-opinion-covid-19-pofma-wet-noodle/
- 45.
Jaipragas, B. ‘Has Singapore’s fake news law passed the election test?’ https://www.scmp.com/print/week-asia/politics/article/3092228/has-singapores-fake-news-law-passed-election-test
- 46.
A Guide to Anti-misinformation Actions Around the World, Poynter. https://www.poynter.org/ifcn/anti-misinformation-actions.
- 47.
Yasmeen Serhan, ‘Macron’s War on Fake News’, The Atlantic, 6 January 2018. https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2018/01/macrons-war-on-fake-news/549788/.
- 48.
Protection from Online Falsehoods and Manipulation Act 2019 (Act 18 of 2019) s 7(1). https://sso.agc.gov.sg/Bills-Supp/10-2019/Published/20190401?DocDate=20190401.
- 49.
‘Ministers Issuing Directives, with Scope for Judicial Oversight, Strikes Best Balance in Combating Fake News: Iswaran’, ChannelNewsAsia, 8 May 2019. https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/ministers-given-authority-issue-directives-fake-news-pofma-bill-11514544.
- 50.
‘Most S’poreans concerned About Fake News: BBC Study’, TODAY, 25 May 2017. https://www.todayonline.com/singapore/most-sporeans-concerned-about-fake-news-bbc-study.
- 51.
‘Most S’poreans Concerned About Fake News: BBC Study’, TODAY, 25 May 2017.
- 52.
‘Two New Media Literacy Resources to Teach Youth How to Spot Fake News’, TODAY, 11 March 2019. https://www.todayonline.com/singapore/two-new-media-literacy-resources-teach-youth-how-spot-fake-news.
- 53.
‘National Framework to Build Information and Media Literacy to Be Launched in 2019: S Iswaran’, ChannelNewsAsia, 2 November 2018. https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/framework-build-information-media-literacy-launched-2019-iswaran-10890438.
- 54.
‘National Framework to Build Information and Media Literacy to Be Launched in 2019: S Iswaran’, ChannelNewsAsia, 2 November 2018.
- 55.
National Library Board Singapore, S.U.R.E. Campaign. http://www.nlb.gov.sg/sure/sure-campaign/. SURE for Life focuses on educating the public about “the threats deliberate online falsehoods pose to the peace and stability of society”, SURE for Work teaches techniques to filter out credible sources of information at work, while SURE for School focuses on information literacy and critical thinking skills for students and educators.
- 56.
‘Two New Media Literacy Resources to Teach Youth How to Spot Fake News’, TODAY, 11 March 2019. https://www.todayonline.com/singapore/two-new-media-literacy-resources-teach-youth-how-spot-fake-news.
- 57.
Similar toolkits will also be distributed at the primary and junior college levels of education, and will include real-life case studies for students to better relate to issues of online falsehoods.
- 58.
‘A Better Internet for a Better World’, 6 April 2018. https://www.imda.gov.sg/infocomm-and-media-news/buzz-central/2018/3/a-better-internet-for-a-better-world.
- 59.
Report of the Select Committee on Deliberate Online Falsehoods—Causes Consequences and Countermeasures, p. 86.
- 60.
Report of the Select Committee on Deliberate Online Falsehoods—Causes Consequences and Countermeasures, p. 88.
- 61.
Report of the Select Committee on Deliberate Online Falsehoods—Causes Consequences and Countermeasures, p. 89.
- 62.
REACH is the abbreviation for “Reaching Everyone for Active Citizenry @ Home”.
- 63.
Report of the Select Committee on Deliberate Online Falsehoods, p. 82.
- 64.
Beata Stur, ‘Baltic “Elves” Take on Russian “Trolls”’, 9 October 2017. https://www.neweurope.eu/article/baltic-elves-take-russian-trolls/.
- 65.
Ministry of Communication and Information, ‘Joint media statement at the 14th Conference of ASEAN Ministers Responsible for Information (AMRI) and Fifth Conference of ASEAN Plus Three Ministers Responsible for Information’, 10 May 2018. https://www.mci.gov.sg/pressroom/news-and-stories/pressroom/2018/5/joint-media-statement-at-14th-conference-of-amri-and-5th-conference-of-amri-plus-3-on-10-may-2018.
- 66.
SGSecure is a national movement that calls on Singaporeans to be part of the nation’s anti-terrorism efforts, by sensitising, training and mobilising the community against terror attacks; it also equips citizens to be mobilisers to help their communities stay united and resilient as well as return to normalcy in the aftermath of an attack. See https://www.mha.gov.sg/hometeamnews/our-community/ViewArticle/terrorism-at-sgsecure-launch.
- 67.
‘Digital Defence to Be Sixth Pillar of Total Defence’, The Straits Times, 15 February 2019. This is the first time that a new pillar has been added since the inception of Total Defence in 1984.
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Jayakumar, S., Ang, B., Anwar, N.D. (2021). Fake News and Disinformation: Singapore Perspectives. In: Jayakumar, S., Ang, B., Anwar, N.D. (eds) Disinformation and Fake News. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-5876-4_11
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