Structure of Teacher Education

Abstract

This chapter defines the structure of teacher education and offers a sampling of how teacher education programmes are organized in over 50 nations around the world. Individual country profiles include information about selected nations’ cultural, economic and political systems as well as teacher education programme types. The work also examines how teacher education is organized internally within universities (University of Bergen, Norway) and how external governing bodies (i.e., Houston, TX, USA) may authorize multiple teacher education providers, each offerings its own version of teacher education, and each reflecting its own unique structure. The work conclusively shows that the structure of education is not only shaped by history and culture, but increasingly dictated by politics as multiple countries’ profiles repeatedly demonstrate.

Appendices

Appendices

Appendix 1: Country Profiles by Region

Country	Educational backdrop	Governance	Programme highlights	Interesting features
NORTH AMERICA
Canada	Canada’s teacher education status is influenced by official bilingualism emerging from British and French colonialism, by an official policy of multiculturalism emerging from immigration policies, by the Canada Act which defines education as a provincial matter, and by the proximity of American educational influences. Canada is recognized as having one of the top literacy rates in the world.	Teacher education is a responsibility of the Canadian provinces; no federal agency decides on educational policy for the country though a Council of provincial ministers of education influences policy. The one exception is First Nations schools, which are federally funded by Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada. Reflecting Canada’s history, both English and French teacher preparation and English and French schools are part of Canada’s public education system.	There are approximately 50 teacher education programmes in Canada. All are offered through universities and are “highly selective” because they draw on the top 30% of high school cohorts (http://www.ncee.org/programmes-affiliates/center-on-international-education-benchmarking/top-performing-countries/canada-overview/canada-teacher-and-principal-quality/). All Canadian teacher candidates engage in extensive field experiences as part of their teacher preparation. Canada, however, has no common teacher certification examination. Once one’s teacher education programme is successfully completed, a candidate submits his/her documentation to obtain a teaching certificate in one’s respective province. For example, the certificate is provided by an education department (Nova Scotia), a group of stakeholders (Quebec), and an independent decision making body (Ontario ). Teachers can easily move from province-to-province in Canada, but they must apply for new certification in the province to which they move.	According to the Center for International Benchmarking in Washington D.C., Canada is a top performing country where student achievement is concerned. In the Center’s Canada report, teacher quality is praised as “a strength of Canadian education” (http://www.ncee.org/programs-affiliates/center-on-international-education-benchmarking/top-performing-countries/canada-overview/canada-teacher-and-principal-quality/).
United States of America	The U.S. educational system is arguably the most diverse in its forms of educational delivery (public schools, private schools, faith -based schools, charter schools) of any country in the world. While the desegregation of America’s public schools in the 1960s sought to bring about equal opportunities to quality education for all youth, it unfortunately fell short of the mark, triggering a long series of publicly and privately funded reforms that have not lived up to expectations. After A Nation at Risk (ANAR) (Gardner, 1983), a trumped up political report claiming American’s ‘mediocre’ educational system was more dangerous than any enemy, its educational system became increasingly politicized. ANAR laid the groundwork for the No Child Left Behind (NCLB ) (2002) policy, which has recently been replaced.	Education—including teacher education—is a states’ right in the U.S. and, hence, falls within the jurisdictional authority of state boards of education. Over time, though, the U.S. has shifted from local control to more centralized control with teacher education programmes being accredited by national agencies and the NCLB Act penalizing states that do not comply with national policy (Fiske, 2008). In some ways, there is dual pressure from both state and federal accrediting agencies which are usually complementary.	All teacher education programmes in the U.S. must be approved by their respective states. Great variations in programmes and in teacher/teacher education quality exist. Approved providers include traditional teacher education programmes offered by colleges and universities and alternative certification programmes, which are offered by a vast assortment of entities (non-profit agencies, for-profit agencies , internet providers, independent consultants and so forth) which allow individuals to teach (if they have a previous degree, have completed a content area examination, and have passed a requisite criminal background check) while taking a handful of courses to become certified in an expedited way. The Alternative Route programme in some states requires that certified candidates have a full-time contract with a school district before they can pursue an Alternative Certification programme.	The NCLB Act defined a quality teacher in the United States as a teacher who has content area knowledge in the school subject s/he teaches. Overall, accountability measures associated with NCLB have diminished the role of curriculum in the U.S. while heightening the attention paid to evaluation . Fifty percent of the U.S.’s beginning teachers leave the profession in the first 5 years of employment.
CENTRAL AMERICA
Mexico	Like other Latin American countries colonized by Spain, Mexico, upon securing its independence, focused the development of its educational system on national character rather than on the creation of human capital (Zinny & McBride, 2014). Teacher preparation was structured at the national level and the curriculum, content and structure were consistent across the nation. This led to criticism of the system preparing a “single type of teacher and a single type of teaching” for contrasting landscape of diverse learners across the country.	In the 1980s and 1990s, a process of decentralization occurred in Mexico, which gave more autonomy to the local states. In 2014, the state wrestled control of teacher education from the teachers’ unions, assuming responsibility for teacher certification, evaluation and salary matters (Zinny & McBride, 2014).	Public institutions offer most teacher education programmes, despite private institutions being on the rise (Smith, 2013). For high school teachers there is not a specific teacher education programme and teachers can enter the teaching profession after a university degree which is consistent with the subject to be taught (i.e. to teach mathematics you could be a physicist, an engineer or a mathematician). Teachers tend to participate in in-service training. High school teachers may be required to obtain a master’s degree in the future.	On the 2011 PISA assessment cycle, Mexico ranked third lowest in reading, mathematics, and science in comparison to other OECD countries (International Student Assessment (PISA), 2015). Teachers are relatively high paid professionals in Mexico.
CARIBBEAN
Cuba	As a result of former Cuban leader Fidel Castro’s 1960 declaration that each child would be henceforth entitled to a free education, Cuba’s education system underwent a transformation with a focus on becoming an illiteracy free country. Teacher preparation was immediately viewed as a key factor in the success of these pursuits, as Castro described the teacher as “the soul of education” (Breidlid, 2007). By 1964, UNESCO had recognized the success of the literacy endeavor and since then, Cuba has been internationally recognized for its efforts toward equity .	Cuban education is under the direction of the Ministry of Education.	Typical teacher preparation includes an average of a 5–6 year preservice education course of study, which is followed by an in-service programme of the same length (Gasperini, 2000). Academic programmes and school partnerships are seen as important parts of pre- and in-service teacher development. Action research is integral to both phases of the development process. Also, the content of the programmes is designed to balance pedagogical and practical knowledge while developing values and skills that meet the needs of the students served by the teacher.	Cuba’s teacher educators are trained in one of the country’s 15 higher-education pedagogical institutes. In order to reduce the theory-practice divide, those desiring to be teacher educators are required to work as teachers for a minimum of 5 years.
SOUTH AMERICA
Argentina	As a former Spanish colony, Argentina’s language of instruction is Spanish. Increased attention has recently been given to bilingual education for indigenous communities that constitute 1.7% of Argentina’s population (SITEAL, 2014).	Teacher education in Argentina is regulated by the 2006 national law, Ley 26,206 (Ministerio de Educación Presidencia de la Nación, 2011). The law adopted a “Consejo Federal de Educación” (CFE, Federal Council of Education), which is made up of education ministers from each of Argentina’s provinces. It also established the Instituto Nacional de Formación Docente (INFOD) which, when translated, means the National Institute of Teacher Development. Teacher preparation is carried out by the provinces in the “Institutos Superiores de Formación Docente” [ISFD] (Ministerio de Educación Presidencia de la Nación, 2011). The majority of ISDFs are public and tuition-free.	Although teacher preparation programmes in Argentina are 4-year programmes, none of the ISFDs are under university jurisdiction. Therefore, none of the teacher preparation programmes are able to grant a bachelor's degree. In order to obtain a university degree, certified teachers must enrol in the Educational Sciences or another discipline. Collaboration among universities and teacher training providers is, in general, not existent.	According to Suasnábar and Palamidessi (2006), the field of education as a discipline in Argentina has emerged as two separate bodies that have grown parallel to each other. On one hand, there is the Normal/Institute tradition that produces teachers and teacher supervisors. On the other hand, there are university-based education scholars. The national and provincial ministries have unsuccessfully attempted to bridge the historic divide by creating educational forums that include all education-related professionals.
Brazil	Brazil has many cultures of people. The country’s indigenous population speaks Portuguese.	Teacher education in Brazil is governed by the Ministry of Education which is subordinate to the President of the Republic. Over time, the system has become somewhat decentralized when some autonomy was granted to the states within the boundaries of the education policy laid out by the federal government, which was based on The Law of Directives and Bases of National Education (Law 9394/96) (LDB). The LDB regulates the educational system in Brazil according to the principles of universal education emanating from the federal constitution in 1988. It includes (1) common core curriculum for primary and secondary education, with some degree of flexibility; and mandatory specialty areas like civic education, physical education, arts, health programmes and religions (religion must be offered by schools but religion is an elective course for students) (see http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/leis/l9394.htm). States are responsible for Basic Education and High Schools. Higher Education is the responsibility of the federal government.	Despite the LDB requiring all teachers to complete their 4th year of experience to have a higher education degree in licentiate courses, only one-third of elementary teachers in Brazil currently hold bachelor’s degrees. In high schools, the number of teachers having bachelor’s degrees with no preparation in the field of education is 22% (Prata-Linhares, Bossler, & Caldeira, 2014).	Brazil is currently experiencing a major teacher shortage, particularly where mathematics and science teachers are concerned (Prata-Linhares et al., 2014). Lack of interest in the teaching profession in Brazil has been attributed to negative public perception of education and poor working conditions and resources in the schools (Marcondes, 2013).
Chile	Initially colonized by Spain, Chile experienced military coups and later became one of Latin America’s most stable, Spanish-speaking countries.	The governance of teacher education is not nationally organized in Chile. However, the Ministry of Education maintains a non-formal relationship with universities and other teacher training providers. Private and public schools flourish in Chile. Higher education is free-of-charge for qualified students.	Decentralized education reforms in the 1980s produced a plethora of teacher education programme-types outside of public university-based teacher education in Chile. Still, the majority of preservice teachers are prepared in university programmes (Montecinos, Ceardi, & Fernández, 2014). Preservice candidates are able to teach in Chile at the successful completion of their programmes after they have had their theses approved and been granted the teaching entitlement (Titulo de Professor).	According to Chileans’ Avalos , Téllez and Navarro (2010), “the unregulated growth of teacher education programs in private universities and the mushrooming of distance programs of doubtful quality have raised concerns about the quality and effectiveness of these programs.”
WESTERN EUROPE/UK
England	The history of teacher education in England dates back to first half of the nineteenth century and the mass education movement .	The Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education (CATE) controls and regulates initial teacher training programmes offered by government agencies in England.	In order to teach in state-maintained schools in England, teachers must possess Qualified Teacher Status (QTS). To obtain QTS the individual must go through initial teacher training (ITT) which combines theoretical learning with at least 18 weeks of practice teaching during school placements. The three main ways to achieve QTS are through undergraduate teacher training, postgraduate teacher training and employment-based teacher training. Postgraduate teacher trainees are eligible for a number of tax free-bursaries that range from £4000–9000. Generally, teacher trainees preparing to teach Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry and Engineering receive the higher bursaries. Overall, British teacher education has vacillated between school-based and university-based models of preparation.	The current standards against which British student teachers are assessed and graded are divided into three discrete units: Professional Values and Practice; Knowledge and Understanding; and Teaching. Educators in England, however, are critical of standards-driven bureaucratic models (Furlong, 2002; Furlong & Smith, 1996). Enhancement courses are offered in some universities in England in Mathematics, for example, before potential candidates enter their teacher education degree programmes in order to maintain programme and teacher quality (Clarke & Murray, 2014).
Northern Ireland	Northern Ireland has a complex educational history shaped by both political and religious forces. The current trend in Northern Ireland is to integrate schools so that students, teachers and leaders from all faith traditions can attend.	The General Teaching Council for Northern Ireland (the Council) governs teacher education in Northern Ireland.	For over a decade, Northern Ireland’s approach to teacher education has revolved around a framework that details the range of competences that need to be addressed by new teachers in all three phases of their early teacher education: Initial Training, Induction and Early Profession Development. The value of this framework is that it is a spiral curriculum specifying what needs to be learned (and re-learned) at each stage of early teacher education. Moreover, because it covers all three phases, each of the partners involved in supporting professional development – HEIs, Schools, and Education and Library Boards (equivalent to LEAs) – have clear expectations and a common language for understanding what trainees at each stage need to learn. (http://www.education.ox.ac.uk/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/CE-Report-Annex-A-Review-of-ITT-provision-in-Wales-English.pdf)	The Northern Ireland model considers what prospective teachers need to learn about different issues and then returns to those issues again and again as teacher candidates progress through the different stages of their early careers.
Scotland	The history of teacher education in Scotland dates back to the mass education movement with the establishment of the Church Education Committee and normal schools . In these schools, instruction in the subject areas and practice in the art of teaching occurred through prospective teachers serving as monitors under the guidance of a schoolmaster (http://www.ed.ac.uk/schools-departments/education/about-us/maps-estates-history/history/part-two).	Political responsibility for education at all levels is vested in the Scottish Parliament and the Scottish Government's Education and Lifelong Learning Department. The General Teaching Council for Scotland regulates professional standards (http://www.gtcs.org.uk/education-in-scotland/scotlands-education-system.aspx). Qualifications at the secondary school and post-secondary (further education) levels are provided by the Scottish Qualifications Authority, the national awarding and accrediting body in Scotland. Teacher education programmes are delivered through various schools, colleges and other learning centers.	In Scotland, teachers are trained through a 4 year undergraduate (Bachelor of Education) or a 1 year postgraduate programme that can be studied part-time.	According to Menter and Hume (2008), “the processes of change in Scotland appear to have been less radical and at a slower pace than in England; however, they have been achieved through a more consensual process and so in the long term are likely to be more embedded than those in England” (p. 213).
Wales	As part of the United Kingdom, Wales has maintained a distinct identity and form of education. It also has its own educational policy, one of which is Iath Pawb, an initiative aimed at preserving and expanding the use of the Welsh language. The responsibility for education in Wales lies with the Welsh Assembly Government.	Initial Teacher Training (ITT) in Wales is offered by three collaborative ITT centers of teacher education. Each center is comprised of two ITT providers (http://teachertrainingcymru.org/node/7). ITT in Wales is inspected by Estyn under the terms of the Education Act (2005), while HEFCW has the responsibility for accrediting institutions that provide ITT. Recently, proposals for changes to the governance arrangements for ITET in Wales are being made. (http://www.education.ox.ac.uk/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/CE-Report-Annex-A-Review-of-ITT-provision-in-Wales-English.pdf)	Three-year undergraduate courses lead to Qualified Teacher Status (QTS) in Wales. Secondary teachers are subject specialists. Initial teacher training (ITT) combines university-based theoretical learning with up to 24 weeks practical teaching experience.	A variety of sources of funding and support are available to preservice teachers while they complete their teacher education programmes in Wales.
France	The present French school (école) system was founded on general principles inspired by the 1789 revolution as well as by the principle of secularism. Teacher education in France began by a decree of Napoleon in 1808 (Misra, 2014).	In France, the state, regional authorities, and professional bodies have shared responsibility for education. Central government retains fundamental powers when it comes to defining and implementing education policy and national education curricula and is responsible for the recruitment and salaries of teachers. Since the 1980s, the State has been devolving powers in order to strengthen the role of local authorities in the management of the school system.	A future teacher in France has to meet two criteria to become a fully qualified teacher: (1) hold a Master’s degree and (2) pass the competitive recruitment examination organized by the French Ministry of Education. Once these criteria are met, newly qualified teachers become civil servants after one probationary year of service. Teachers recruited by private schools must also pass competitive examinations and are paid by the State if they are part of grant-aided schools. However, they are not civil servants (Picard & Ria, 2011).	In 2012, a labor government came into power in France and restructured the teacher education system, renaming Frances’ institutions ‘Schools of Education’ (Ecoles Superieures du Professorat etde l’Education - ESPEs).
Finland	Finnish teacher education began in 1852 with the first professorial chair of education at the University of Helsinki. The Professor of Pedagogy lectured on teaching methods and advised students on teaching skills. The task of the professor was to develop teacher education , particularly for secondary school teachers (Kansanen, 2003). Since the 1980s, Finland’s reform of its education system has shifted from a technical rational paradigm to an interpretivist paradigm (Lauriala, 2013). The Finnish international reputation (in the international standardized measurement tests) has increased interest in teacher education.	The Ministry of Education of Finland sets educational policies that are open to local interpretation.	Teacher education was centralized in Finnish universities in 1974 and a master’s degree programme was added to the primary teacher diploma in 1979. With the 1999 Bologna Agreement , teacher education became a 3-year Bachelor’s degree, followed by a 2-year Master’s degree. Teacher education is systemically planned in Finland and deeply rooted in the teacher-as-researcher philosophy and prepares teachers for a research-based orientation towards their practical teaching work in the classroom. They are also guided to learn reflection as a way of thinking and as a tool for continuous professional development . The moral qualities of teaching are also integral to their teacher education programmes.	A unique feature of Finnish teacher education is that both primary and secondary school teachers earn a master’s degree and their academic status is the same as other degree programmes (Kansanen, 2003, p. 86). Finland maintains 11 practice teaching schools that belong administratively to the eight universities offering teacher education programmes (Lauriala, 2013). The connection between the theoretical and the practical in Finnish teacher education is organically linked. Preservice teachers are not expected to produce new knowledge through their research, but rather to solve a practical or theoretical issue encountered in practice (Tarman, 2010). Upon graduation, teacher candidates are licensed as full-fledged teachers. Competition, however, is fierce, and approximately 15% of the applicants in teacher education are accepted.
Germany	Germany, a cradle of the global mass education movement , has had teacher education programmes reaching back to the early nineteenth century. Germany’s participation in large-scale assessment studies and the Bologna Declaration of 1999, among other factors, has brought about recent changes to the German system of teacher education (Rotors, 2015).	The federal government of Germany does not have the authority to make teacher education policy . However, common features are determined by the Conference of Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs. Each federal state, though, is responsible for how it structures teacher education and schooling.	There is great variation in how teacher education is delivered in Germany due to its decentralized structure. Initial teacher education takes 5 years for primary teachers and at least 6 years for secondary teachers. The programme is divided into two phases. The first phase, which lasts 3–4 years, takes place in universities and ends with a thesis and written and oral examinations. Upon successful completion of these examinations, students are eligible to proceed to the second phase (preparatory service), which lasts one and one-half to 2 years. The second practical phase is conducted in the schools and is supervised via a state-run ‘Study Seminar.’ In this phase, students work at schools with a reduced salary and participate in training sessions on a weekly basis run by various teacher trainers. In-service training institutes are subordinate to the Ministries of Education in the respective federal state. At the end of this phase, candidates take another state exam, which consists of an oral exam, sometimes another written thesis, and an evaluation of classroom teaching.	After they complete a 2-year probationary period, and have successfully applied for a permanent position, teachers are appointed for life as German public servants with high initial salaries, particular in upper secondary school. Germany is considered to have one of the longest, most rigorous and in some respect least inflexible programmes of teacher preparation in the world. As a country, Germany is currently in the process of reconciling its historical Didaktik tradition of education, which is hermeneutic in nature, with a newly introduced accountability -based system, which is input-output by design (Roters, 2015).
The Netherlands	The 1848 constitution of The Netherlands allows any group of parents to require the state to create a school for their children at the government’s expense. These schools can be faith -based or not. These campuses are directed by school boards that may be responsible for several campuses (Center for Educational Benchmarking, Netherlands Report). All schools are governed by school boards and about 98 % are paid by the government.	The Dutch government’s duty is to provide quality education for all. According to a 2004 law, teachers in The Netherlands must not only be qualified, but be competent. Higher Education Institutions governs teacher education. The ministry has devised a set of professional standards for all candidates entering the teaching profession, which serve as “benchmarks” for teacher education (Meijer, Oolbekkink, Pillen, & Aardema, 2014). All graduates of teacher education institutes are considered competent and can enter the profession. Teacher education institutes are responsible for the curriculum of the teacher education programmes. Every 6 years the national accreditation organization (NVAO) evaluates the programme, aims, and curriculum and ensures that it abides by the standards .	Teacher education is delivered in two kinds of institutes: Hogeschools or the universities of applied sciences (UAS), which cater to about 95 % of the students and research universities that cater to the remaining 5 % of the students.	Despite Dutch teachers being paid more than the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD ) average, there is a shortage of secondary school teachers in the Netherlands that is expected to become severe by 2017.
Norway	Norway, which has the distinction of being one of the richest countries in the world, has suffered from what has been termed “PISA shock” in the last decade (Smith, 2014). The country has scored lower than the mean when compared to other Organization for Economic and Cooperative Development (OECD ) nations and other Nordic countries. This has set in motion of series of reform of the Norwegian teacher education system.	Norway has a national framework for teacher education, which all of its universities and colleges follow. There is leeway, however, in how individual institutions interpret this framework.	Norwegian institutions are responsible for the quality of their programmes. The connections between internal and external quality assurance are maintained by the Norwegian Agency for Quality Assurance in Education, which acts independently of the government and institutions of higher learning. There are no tests for teacher candidates when they complete their teacher education programmes.	A recent comparison of Finnish and Norwegian teacher education states that “Norway’s teacher education policies are controlled by politics [while] Finland leaves the development of teacher education policies to researchers and educators in the actual fields of education and policy” (Ladegaard, 2012). Also, despite teachers being paid relatively high in Norway, a teacher shortage looms on the horizon.
Portugal	Current forces affecting Portugal’s educational system are the Bologna process and the severe financial and economic crisis the country is experiencing.	Teacher education in Portugal is controlled by the Ministry of Education (ME). Teacher education was restructured in Portugal in the wake of the Bologna Agreement . The Decree-Law 43/2007 outlines the professional qualifications for all levels of teaching.	A 3-year degree (licenciatura) and a master’s degree in teaching, which typically is 2 years in length, are required to teach in Portugal. This replaced the integrated teacher education degree, and which revolved around integration of theory and practice , subject knowledge and pedagogy. It usually involved a year long practicum in the school.	The separation of the years of preparation into two component parts has resulted in a consecutive model of teacher education that has replaced the concurrent model previously in existence. The major drawback, according to Flores (2014), is the reduced time and space for the practicum. Portugal presently is experiencing a teacher surplus and high unemployment rates.
Spain	Like other European countries, Spain’s educational system traces back to the mass education movement of the nineteenth century. Most recently, its European Union involvement has brought about changes in the country’s structure of teacher education . With the adoption of the European Higher Education Framework, teacher education in Spain has shifted to a 4-year degree programme.	Teacher Education in Spain is mainly state-regulated in its curriculum and the organization (i.e., credits, certification). The state offers guidelines to the regional governments (i.e. Castillay León, Madrid, Andalucía, etc.). However, the decision making process of deciding the final syllabus, how to teach its subjects, organizing the practicum, etc. mainly remains at each university.	In Spain, a University Council develops the core curriculum for teacher education degree-related programmes. Each university designs its courses based on the core curriculum and provides practicum experiences for prospective teachers as required by governmental policy.	The list of the successful teachers is made public in the Boletin Official del Estado (BOE) or in the regional gazettes: i.e., BOCYL (Official Gazette of Castilla y León). The certification is valid nationally and, since the adoption of the European Higher Education framework, it is generally applicable to the other country members of the EU.
Sweden	Sweden, a Nordic social welfare state, provides free education to all including higher education. This mean teacher education is free of charge to those aspiring to be teachers. There are also state subsidized student loans to help cover living expenses, as most students do not stay with their parents .	The responsibility for teacher education falls within the duties of the Ministry of Education and Research, most specifically in the portfolio of the Minister for Higher Education and Research.	All Swedish teacher education programmes, regardless of programme length or specialization, include at least one term of practice teaching in the schools. The teacher education reform of 2011 standardized the teaching degree programmes available in Sweden.	Because Swedish schools are often organized around team teaching, some Swedish teacher education assignments involve group assignments. This group approach prepares prospective teachers for the way schools—their future workplaces—are organized (Edling & Frelin, 2015). However, recently there has been more of a push for teachers to teach individually.
Switzerland	A late adopter of the university model of teacher education, Switzerland incorporated teacher education into its university system in the 1990s. There are great variations among the Swiss cantons and the majority of teacher education is realised in Specialised Institutions offering university degrees (BA and MA) but different from the Universities.	The canton (regional) governance system of Switzerland makes it difficult for teacher education to be coordinated nationally. The only educational matter over which the state government has authority is vocational education. In the past, teacher education credentials were not transferable from one canton to another. However, the Swiss Conference of Cantonal Ministers of Education changed this policy and now transferability exists.	Teacher education delivery in Switzerland is highly diverse, with less diversity occurring in secondary teacher preparation programmes than in elementary ones due to all secondary programmes currently being based in university settings. The number of subjects a prospective teacher is required to study in Switzerland greatly exceeds other countries’ expectations.	Teacher education in Switzerland has undergone radical changes recently due to Switzerland being a participating non-member of the European Union in the Bologna process .
EASTERN EUROPE AND FORMER SOVIET UNION
Czech Republic	The Czech Republic has been in state of reform since the splitting up of the former Czechoslovakia in 1993. The Czech Republic has been a member of the European Union since 2004.	The minimum standard of education in the Czech Republic is established by the Ministry of Education. After a teacher education programme has been approved at the faculty level, it must be accepted by the respective university and then by the Ministry of Education. The Ministry of Education has a special advisory board (Accreditation Committee) which supervises the teacher education programmes.	The Czech Republic’s 5-year master’s degree in teacher education programme was suspended as a result of the Bologna Process (with exception of primary teacher education programme). Apart from universities, professional schools are also qualified to prepare teachers, in a more practically-oriented way. In addition, accredited private and religious institutions are also able to offer teacher preparation programmes for several categories of pedagogical workers.	The shift from a concurrent delivery of a teacher education programme to a consecutive delivery system has been strongly criticized in the Czech Republic. The change, which some consider “destructive,” hindered the intermingling of content area knowledge, didactics and reflective practice (Minařiková, Pǐsová, & Janík, 2015).
Estonia	In Estonia, an induction year has been funded, complete with supervisors, since 2004. The Bologna Agreement necessitated changes to the structure of Estonian teacher education, which resulted in the abolition of this paid induction year. Estonia is currently experiencing a shortage of teachers in several subject areas, particularly the science disciplines (Leijen, Kullasepp, & Anspal, 2014).	The general framework for teacher education in Estonia is guided by the regulations of the Government of the Republic of Estonia (i.e., Standard of Higher Education, 2008; Teacher Training Framework Requirements, 2000).	Two types of teachers are prepared in Estonia’s system of teacher education: class teachers (Grades 1–4) and subject teachers (Grades 5–12). Both tracks of teachers are prepared in university settings. Teacher education in Estonia is composed of three requisite parts: (1) general educational study; (2) study of a particular content area; and (3) professional preparation (i.e., didactics, etc.). In addition to traditional teacher education programmes offered by institutions of higher learning, there is also an alternate teacher preparation route called “Youth to School,” which is based on the British ‘Teach First’ alternate certification programme. The teacher education curriculum of this alternate certification programme includes volunteer coaching, networking and leadership development.	In Estonia, an induction year has been funded, complete with supervisors, since 2004. The Bologna Agreement necessitated changes to the structure of Estonian teacher education, which resulted in the abolition of this paid induction year. Estonia is currently experiencing a shortage of teachers in several subject areas, particularly the science disciplines (Leijen et al., 2014).
Georgia	Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Georgia has undergone massive educational changes to undo historically inherited practices and policies (Collinson et al., 2009).	The State Commission on Educational Facilities regulates the number of students able to enter teacher education programmes in Georgia. Private and public universities are largely in charge of teacher education in Georgia. A 2014 law requires students to pass a teacher certification examination after s/he has completed a relevant degree programme and worked on a probationary basis in a school for 1 year.	Each university in Georgia develops its own standards , requirements and teacher education programme.	Teacher education in Georgia continues to be in flux as the old Soviet system becomes replaced with the new Georgian system that is in the process of being installed.
Greece	The wellspring of Western civilization and the language and culture from which the word, ‘pedagogue’, originated, Greece, a member of the European Union, is currently suffering a major economic setback. Austerity measures are being felt in all sectors of its society, including education.	Education in Greece is centralized and under the auspices of the Hellenic Ministry of Education and Religious Affairs. However, teacher education in Greece is to a great extent formulated by and the responsibility of universities’ departments of education (i.e. Nursery/Early Childhood, Primary/Elementary) and for secondary school teacher education by universities’ departments according to their specialization (i.e. Philology, Foreign Languages , Physical Education, History, Chemistry, Biology, Mathematics, Physics, Philosophy, Economics, etc.). Special education teachers who work in the area of primary education are graduates of the university departments of education. Having taught in mainstream schools for a minimum of 5 years, they complete a 2-year in-service training programme in special education.	By virtue of the country’s constitution, education is free at all levels of the Greek system. Teachers complete their undergraduate studies, sit for national teacher qualification examinations (subject and pedagogic knowledge) and then are placed on tenure lists maintained by the Ministry of Education and Religious Affairs. Appointments are made when school openings become available and are based on teacher’s national teacher qualification examination scores and criteria set by the Ministry of Education. Greek teachers become civil servants after a probationary period of 2 years of successful teaching.	Greece is currently experiencing a teacher surplus, particularly where secondary teachers are concerned. At the present time, with the current austerity measures and the commensurate school consolidations, very few teachers are being appointed. This has created long lapses between teacher preparation and permanent teacher employment with many beginning teachers working as hourly state teaching appointees, providing private tutoring, and/or turning to private schools.
Kazakhstan	Formerly a part of the Soviet Union, the idea of teaching for a democratic society and a market economy continues to be somewhat new to the citizens of Kazakhstan. The country has worked diligently to reform its system of education since gaining its independence in 1991 (Collinson et al., 2009; Zogla, 2006). Teacher education has long been a priority in shaping Kazakhstan’s independent character and economic future (Chapman, Weidman, Cohen, & Mercer, 2015).	Tertiary education policy in Kazakhstan is driven by three policy documents: (1) the constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan; (2) the Law of Education; and (3) the State Programme of Educational Development for 2011–2020. In 2010, Kazakhstan became the first country in Central Asia—and the 47th country in all—to join the Bologna Accord.	According to Wilson, Turner, Sharimova, and Brownhill (2013), “the main aim of the teacher education reform programme is to develop the learning and expertise of teachers in the public school system, so that the young people of Kazakhstan will become global learners in the twenty- first century” (p. 1). An additional thrust is to establish a network of professional development centers throughout Kazakhstan.	Where teacher education and development are concerned, Kazakhstan has entered into a critically important partnership with the University of Cambridge in England.
Poland	Since 1999, Poland’s educational system has experienced reforms that have increased the qualifications of its teachers. Currently, 98% of teachers in Poland hold a bachelor’s and master’s degrees.	Teacher education in Poland is mostly offered within the legal and institutional framework of higher education. However, a few teacher training colleges, which are not under the jurisdiction of higher education, produce a small number of teachers. Licensure does not exist in Poland. The college education programmes are being systematically phased out.	Like other European countries, Poland has adapted its delivery of teacher education in response to the Bologna Accord. Poland’s old 5-year master’s degree route to teacher preparation has been phased out and has been replaced by a 3-year bachelor’s degree and a 2-year master’s degree.	Initial teacher education is provided within two sectors of the education system: higher education sector and the school education sector (until 2015). The degree programmes, including first-, second- and long-cycle programmes, are offered within university type HEIs, namely in universities, technical universities, polytechnics and academies. Non-degree postgraduate programmes are offered by non-university HEIs (with no rights to confer the academic degree of doctor). In the school education sector are offered the college programmes (now being phased out), including teacher training colleges and foreign language teacher training colleges.
Russian Federation	Similar to other countries that constituted the former Soviet Union, the Russian Federation has struggled to replace Soviet methods of teaching for industrialization and collectivization (Zogla, 2006) with methods and approaches that would help the country align more favorably with the Bologna Agreement and Europe.	Teacher education in the Russian Federation is controlled by the Ministry of Education and Science.	The old 5-year master’s degree programme in the Russian Federation has been abandoned and has been replaced with a 3-year bachelor’s degree and a 2-year master’s degree. Elementary teachers are prepared in one department in the Russian Federation; secondary teachers are prepared in a different department.	In Russia, approximately 75 % of the teaching work force is female. The more than 190 institutions offering teacher education were reduced to 62 in 2009.
Slovakia	Before 1989, teachers were trained to work in highly homogenous environment of identical state schools with a unified national curriculum . Slovakia joined the European Union in 2004. But the implementation of Bologna process started earlier, around 2000 when Slovakia joined OECD and NATO as well. Two main strategies have influenced Slovakia’s higher education at the turn of the millennium: the Bologna Process and the Lisbon stategy of the EU.	The Slovak governing body for elementary, secondary and higher education, including educational facilities, lifelong learning, science, and the state’s support for sports and youth, is the Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport. It works with regional authorities to put national policy into action. Different regional authorities are responsible for founding and establishing public schools. Preschools, kindergartens, primary and lower secondary schools are founded and managed by municipalities, higher secondary schools (called middle schools) are founded and managed by districts/counties, public higher education (universities) are self-governing subjects subsidized directly by the Ministry.		Slovakia participates in a number of international comparative studies where education is concerned. These include: OECD’s PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment) and TALIS (Teaching and Learning International Survey) tests; and the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement’s (IEA) PIRLS (Progress in International Reading Literacy Study) and TIMSS (Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study) tests. In grade five and grade nine of compulsory education the national testing is taking place (called Testing 5 and Testing 9). For Slovakia, external evaluations of students and schools are typical. There is a strong school inspection system as well. Lack of internal and self-evaluation within the Slovak schools is the weak point stated in the OECD report in 2014.
Turkey	The geographical meeting place of Eastern and Western cultures, Turkey established its first teacher training institution in the middle of the nineteenth century in Istanbul (Tarman, 2010). Recent sources showed that first teacher training institutions were established by Mehmet the Conqueror in the middle of fourteenth century within the body of Eyup Madrasah. Recently, Turkey has been aligning its teacher education structure with the Bologna Agreement in order to prepare the country for its higher education integration into Europe (McKeown, 2015).	Initially, the Ministry of Education gained control of the whole educational system when Turkey became a republic. In 1981, however, the responsibilities and activities of teacher training were transferred from the Ministry of National Education to universities through a Higher Education Council (HEC). This Council of Higher Education is responsible for all higher education reforms (YŐK, 2014).	In Turkey, there is a first year probationary teaching period, which along with one’s degree completion, is necessary for certification (Yuksel, 2012).	Candidates for teacher education programmes are selected on the basis of standardized multiple choice questions in university entrance examinations. Students who graduated from teacher training high schools received additional points before 2014. In 2014, these schools ceased to exist. Most Turkey universities with faculties of education offer dual (both regular and evening) programmes. Although students in the evening programmes are required to pay higher tuition than the ones enrolled in regular programmes, they are admitted to the same courses of study with relatively lower scores than the regular students. Regular students are, however, not required to pay tuition fee anymore because a few years ago was repelled. Turkey has a career ladder for teacher advancement (Yuksel, 2012) which unfortunately has been suspended. Currently, there is an over-supply of secondary subject teachers but a lack of pre-school and primary school teachers in Turkey.
MIDDLE EAST
Cyprus	Cyprus continues to deal with political and geographical disputes that influence how education is delivered in the country.	The Ministry of Education and Culture has jurisdiction over education in the Republic of Cyprus. Cyprus’s policy initiatives ideally seek a peaceful coexistence among majority and minority groups, among other disputed matters (Zembylas et al., 2011).	Cypriot teachers are prepared in institutions of higher education with an average course of study being 4 years for preservice teacher education. There is increasing emphasis and a growing body of literature about in-service education and internship programmes in Cyprus.	After prospective teachers are prepared in Cyprus, their names are placed in a registry according to their areas of specialization and the year they graduated from their teacher education programmes. This practice was in place until recently. Currently, teachers are given examinations and are then offered positions.
Egypt	For several decades, the quality of primary education in Egypt has been poor, which has resulted in an illiteracy rate around 28 % (Keddie, 2013). Until 2012, less than 10% of the total number of schools in Egypt met the national standards for quality education (UNICEF, http://www.unicef.org/egypt/education.html).	The Ministry of Education takes a centralized control of developing and monitoring teacher education programmes in Egypt. It cooperates with other international organizations (i.e., UNESCO , World Bank , United Nations Development Programme, UNICEF) to enhance teacher education. UNICEF, for example, is supporting the Ministry of Education to develop standardized teacher’s performance observation tools, training manuals, and a skilled cadre of trainers nationwide (UNICEF, http://www.unicef.org/egypt/Fact_Sheet_-_Education.pdf).	The Mubark Teacher Training Institute holds short courses on pressing educational topics and organizes workshops about language and the use of IT in education. This national institute aims to transfer information from the Ministry of Education directly to school teachers. Remote videoconferencing is another form of national training, which is to facilitate the communication between teachers and the Ministry of Education (Maklad, 2008).	In Egypt, teachers earn small salaries, which amount to a little more than $281 per month range (Keddie, 2013). Sometimes, Egyptian university professors interact with the schools and assist with teacher improvement (Maklad, 2008).
Iran	Iran has a long historical and cultural legacy where education is concerned (Azam, Fauzee, & Daud, 2014). Teachers in Iran are considered nation-builders (Shamohammadi, 2012). Iranian teacher education programmes have been in a state of reform since the 1990s.	Teacher education is governed by the Ministry of Education in Iran. Iranian teachers are prepared at teacher education universities (Daneshgah Farhangian). There are typically two gender-based institutions per province: one for males; one for females (Gholami & Mehrmohammadi, 2014). A teaching certificate is required for employment at nearly all Iranian public schools. For primary and middle school teachers, this certificate requires the candidate to have a post-diploma (associate’s degree: 2 years after high school). For high school positions, preservice teachers need a bachelor’s degree in a suitable content area (Samiei, 2011). The same is not the case for Iran’s burgeoning private schools where “personal relationships/networks and principals’ personal approaches” (Shamohammadi, 2012, p. 132) are key determining factors in the hiring decision.	The existing teacher education curriculum in Iran revolves around teacher content knowledge , teacher pedagogical knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge. A fourth strand is currently being introduced: performance competencies (Gholami & Mehrmohammadi, 2014). In the new teacher education programme and within the strand called PC, three modes of teacher inquiry are emphasized. They are: action research , lesson study and narrative research. This combination of three approaches is expected to assist in achieving the meta-competency of reflectiveness which has been set as the guiding principle in the new TE programme.	Since 1996, the Ministry of Education has supported the teacher research pedagogy for in-service teachers. This approach is now being introduced to Iran’s teacher education programme at its Daneshgah Farhangians (Gholami & Mehrmohammdi, 2014).
Israel	Israeli society is highly diverse, involving many different national, ethnic, and religious groups (Paul-Binyamin & Reingold, 2014). No multicultural agenda has ever been introduced to Israel. The reciprocal relationships among the various groups are characterized by “mutual rejection” (Paul-Binyamin & Reingold, 2014).	The teacher education colleges in Israel are under the supervision of Ministry of Education. While most schools are regulated by the Ministry of Education, the state schools are divided into national and religious sectors (i.e., Arab, Jew, Orthodox Jews), each of them separately supervised by the Ministry (Yogev, 1996). By contrast, university teacher education programmes are autonomous although they follow the Ministry’s general curricular guidelines.	To develop teacher education, Israel initiated the academization of teacher training colleges and the professionalization of teaching (Zohar, 2002). Israeli preservice teachers are prepared in university teacher colleges, which provide teaching certification programmes for the elementary and junior high school levels; or in university academic schools of education that offer programmes leading toward the high school teaching certificate. There are additional Arab speaking institutes for the training of Arab teachers, although the majority of Arab teachers are trained in Hebrew speaking universities and colleges. There are also separate teacher preparation institutes for independent orthodox schools (Yogev, 1996). Before a teacher is granted his/her teaching license, an assessment is made by a committee headed by an inspector from the Ministry of Education (Zohar, 2002). Lower secondary teachers may complete a 3-year programme and be qualified to teach grades kindergarten through ten, or they may undertake a 4-year integrated programme at teacher training college, earning both a bachelor’s degree and the teacher’s diploma. Upper secondary school teachers must hold a university bachelor’s degree in a disciplinary field other than education and a teaching diploma, which may be completed either in a 1 or 2 year programme following the award of the bachelor’s degree or as a 3 or 4-year integrated programme” (Schumacher, 2008).	An induction programme operates during the first year of teaching in Israel. Inductees work as independent teachers throughout the entire study year for at least 12 weekly hours. The induction year serves as a basis for the assessment of inductees. A positive report at the end of the induction year is necessary for the teacher to be granted a teaching license (Lazovsky & Reichenberg, 2006).
Oman	Teacher education is available at only a few institutions. Sultan Qaboos university opened in 1986 and consists of six colleges. Among these colleges is the College of Education which is the sole academic institution that started to grant bachelor degrees in education in different subjects areas such as Islamic science, Arabic language, Science, Mathematics, Arts and physical education. All graduated students from this college are qualified to teach at elementary and secondary government schools.	The Ministry of Higher Education governs higher education in Oman. In the mid-2000s, the ministry consolidated six teacher education colleges into one institution of higher learning, the College of Applied Sciences.	Males and females are prepared to be teachers in different institutions in Oman. Some programmes have more emphasis on English as a language of instruction than others. Some teacher education programmes include cultural components (Arabic language, Islamic origins).	The Bachelor of Education degree in Oman takes 4 years at most institutions. At a few institutions, it takes 5 years to complete.
AFRICA
Botswana	When Botswana gained its independence in 1966 from the British, its general state of education was poor. Since then, the government has worked to expand both primary and secondary education and to increase its number of teacher education programmes.	The Ministry of Education and Skills Development has jurisdiction over education in Botswana. Initially, the Department of Teacher Training and Development was established in 1989 to spearhead the development of teacher education in the country. The Department provides leadership and direction to both preservice and in-service teacher education at college and university levels.	Botswana’s universities have more autonomy over decision making where teacher education is concerned than does its colleges. There are practicum experiences of varying lengths in Botswana. Seven weeks of teaching practice is required for the country’s Bachelor of Secondary Education degree programme.	Twelve education centers are responsible for teachers’ professional development in Botswana. At the University of Botswana the Department of Primary Education (DPE) programmes focus on teachers’ professional development in the areas of content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge . Although teachers in primary schools are generalists, the DPE programmes offer specializations in all subjects taught in primary schools.
Kenya	Prior to the Harambee Movement (1960s–1970s) which organized fundraising efforts for the improvement of universal primary education, the Kenyan education system was largely governed by small informal local groups directed by parents . Through the movement, the Ministry of Education sought to move the country’s education system toward a goal of offering students an education that was more formal, guided by teachers who were civil servants and directed centrally through the Ministry of Education, rather than driven by local parental interests (Duflo, 2014).	Kenyan Education is fostered under the Ministry of Education. Because of the increased standardization and professionalism in the preparation of teachers, Kenyan hiring is no longer limited to traditional local committees and Parent Teacher Associations, but also occurs through the Ministry of Education’s Teacher Service Commission. In public primary and secondary schools, hiring of teachers is done by the Teachers Service Commission as the sole employer on advertisement. Local primary school committees hire teachers for the primary schools only in cases where there are teacher shortages in primary schools. Parents Teachers Associations are found only in secondary schools where in conjunction with the Boards of Governors [management ] may hire already qualified teachers as temporary teachers for the secondary school in subjects where there are shortages – again these are paid agreed salaries and known only within the respective schools. In both cases, the temporary teachers are not considered teachers.	Since the 1980s, the Kenyan University System, which provides teacher training , has grown from a single university to five (Deal, 1999). In 2012 through to 2013, the government upgraded 15 constituent colleges to full university statuses hence Kenya currently has 22 Public universities. Of the current 22 public universities, only 5 do not offer teacher Education programmes. Those individuals enrolled in teacher education programmes participate in varied courses of study and are placed with cooperating teachers under university assigned supervision.	As Kenyan teacher education moves toward formal education and standardized curriculum, there remains uneven representation, participation, and often a shortage of cooperating teachers who have been sufficiently prepared to support incoming teacher candidates.
South Africa	Following a long period of Apartheid in South Africa , university-based teacher education programmes were one of many post-Apartheid changes.	Parents Teachers Associations are found only in secondary schools where they, in conjunction with the Boards of Governors [management ], which may hire already qualified teachers as temporary teachers for the secondary school in subjects where there are shortages – again these are paid salaries and known only within the respective schools.	In the early 2000s, 37% of South African teacher education students were enrolled in teacher education programmes offered in public-private distance education partnerships.	Over 100 private providers are currently involved in teacher education in South Africa.
Zambia	When Zambia loosened Britain’s colonial chains, it suffered from a lack of infrastructure to provide education to its people. The country is currently working hard to offer 7 years of primary education to all children.	The temporary teachers are not necessarily trained.	Ten teacher education colleges in the country are authorized to provide General Certificates of Education and five teacher education colleges are able to offer the diploma programmes. Only colleges affiliated with the University of Zambia have the authority to offer teacher education degree programmes. Preparation to teach subjects like industrial arts and agricultural science is not within the policy jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education (Manchisi, 2004).	135,000 qualified teachers will be needed in Zambia for its citizens to have 7 years of primary education by 2030 (UNESCO ).
SOUTH ASIA
China	Education in China has grown rapidly since the reform and opening-up of the country in the late 1970s. Tremendous resources have been invested in teacher preparation and development. According to Ding and Sun (2007), the teaching force in China is generally in a state of shortage, especially in the western, less-developed regions and rural areas.	The Ministry of Education (MOE ) oversees teacher education in China. Under the direction of the MOE, local governments have primary responsibility for running the teacher education system.	In addition to governing teacher education programmes, the Ministry regulates the selection of practicum schools and supervisors, determines the qualifications for university and school supervisors, determines the number of candidates assigned to a supervisor, and sets the number of hours preservice teachers must spend in schools, among varied other things. Increasingly, universities which have teacher education programmes have created their own partnership schools based on the regulations. Additionally, while the central government establishes the teacher preparation requirements and standards , the programmes vary in entry criteria, exit requirements, certificate examinations and other requirements, as they are under the operation of respective provincial education commissions. Prospective teachers in China spend a great deal of time observing the classrooms of experienced teachers.	Unlike many countries, China traditionally has had no system of teacher certification. Only since the early 1990s has the government started to implement teacher examinations and credentials. Another feature worth mentioning is that the students enrolled as part of a government-support cohort in six normal universities in China are entitled to receive government-supported teacher education, which not only covers tuition and accommodation fees, but also provides a subsidy.
Japan	In the aftermath of World War II , Japan followed the U.S. Education Mission’s recommendation to incorporate teacher education into its university system.	Japanese teacher education is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT). The statute most influencing teacher education is the Law for Certification of Educational Personnel. Minimum requirement s are nationally determined, but the 47 prefecture boards of education can require further preparation in order for candidates to teach in particular locales. After 1 year of probation in schools, beginning teachers become permanent employees (Howe & Arimoto, 2014).	Different requirements for licensure exist for different levels of Japanese schooling. Programmes also differ because there are over 1000-MEXT authorized teacher education institutions. As measures to keep capable teachers at school, MEXT introduced educational personnel certificate renewal system in 2009 in order to create a framework to reward teachers’ motivations and efforts. Also MEXT established a new required professional subject, Kyoushoku Jissen Enshu in 2010. The content of Kyoushoku Jissen Enshu is for students to reflect on their own learning over the years spent at the university.	Becoming a teacher is very competitive in Japan because teachers are paid more than average citizens. Teaching is one of the few lifetime professions for Japanese females. Recently, the working conditions of teachers have eroded (Howe & Arimoto, 2014). Local authorities are focused on contemplating the role of NPO support while also engaging in various activities, helping to launch community businesses and social businesses, and enhancing cooperation between NPOs and other sectors.
South Korea	After South Korea overcame the Korean War, a new philosophy to democratize education was embraced with support from the United States. In a short period of time, South Korea’s literacy rate rose from 22% to over 90%, making it one of the most literate nations in the world.	Teacher education in South Korea is centrally governed by the Ministry of Education (MOE ) and highly regulated. The Ministry of Education holds the belief that “the quality of education cannot exceed the quality of teachers,” thus it enacts policies aimed to improve teacher quality and capacity. Once teacher education students graduate from university, they are automatically eligible to receive a teaching certificate. The certificate indicates the level at which one can teach and the subject areas one is authorized to teach. The credential allows teachers to be employed anywhere in South Korea.	Primary school teachers attend national universities. Secondary school teachers are prepared in colleges of education or in education departments of private or public universities. The practicum in South Korean teacher education generally takes 4 weeks. Both primary and secondary candidates take entry-level examinations in order to study teacher education. In order to become a teacher, applicants need to attend education courses run and managed by teacher education institutes, and acquire a teaching certificate relevant to a given category. Teachers are classified into several categories, for example, elementary teachers, secondary teachers (e.g., English teacher, Math teacher, etc.), professional counselors, librarians, and nursing teachers. They are required to meet the specific qualification criteria for each category and to be licensed by the by the Deputy Prime Minister of Education as stipulated by a South Korean presidential decree.	The status of teachers in South Korea is very high in comparison to other professions. Primary and secondary teachers in Korea enjoy high social status as professionals with corresponding incomes because they are civil servants. There are more university teacher education programmes in the country than departments involving other academic or professional disciplines (You, 2014). Because South Korea has an oversupply of teachers, only one in five teacher candidates ever becomes employed.
Taiwan	Since the retreat of the Nationalist (KMT) regime from Mainland China to Taiwan in 1949, this island state has undergone major reforms in the economic, political and social spheres. In the 1990s, following economic, political and social changes, a further wave of reform focused on education. In 1994, a landmark Teacher Education Act was enacted to implement a brand-new diversified teacher education system.	Initially, Taiwan pursued teacher quality through a continuous upgrading of the single-purpose normal institutions in a highly regulated monopoly system. Teacher quality was primarily focused on the academic ability of entering students. Government intervention played an important role in preparing quality teachers to meet the expansion of the system due to population growth. The major reform in 1994 heralded a new era in Taiwan’s teacher education. Since then, the focus has been on diversification, deregulation and competition. Hence, teacher quality is no longer limited to academic ability; other factors such as personal qualities, motivation and commitment are additionally taken into account.	Before 1995, teaching training education programmes were only provided at teachers colleges (preparing elementary and kindergarten teachers) and normal universities (secondary teachers). After the Teacher Education Law was enacted in 1995, public and private colleges and universities became eligible to provide teacher education programmes to prepare teachers (40 credit hours for elementary teachers; 26 credit hours for secondary subject area teachers).	One of the most important missions of institutions for teacher preparation in Taiwan is to promote the professional growth of both prospective and practicing teachers. At teachers’ colleges, for example, there are general courses (to increase understanding of liberal arts), specialized courses (to enhance understanding of content area knowledge), and professional courses (to cultivate professional knowledge and skills).
EAST ASIA
India	India has a long history of being a British colony. Prior to that, the lower castes in Indian society were denied education by design. Mass education, which was introduced by the British and reinforced in contemporary India by the Right to Education Act of 2009, has challenged elitist views of education in India (Ratnam, 2013). The current discourse in teacher education aims to create a humane and professional teacher (NCTE, 2009) who is sensitive to the context of contemporary India. The high-powered commission on teacher education appointed by the Supreme Court of India in 2012 made this landmark move.	Education is essentially state governed in India. The National Policy of Education (1986) allowed central and state governments to collectively establish a mass network of District Institutes of Education and Training (DIETs). Currently there are 28 DIETs and 18 English Language Teaching Institutes throughout the country. More recently, private agencies have entered the education sector to meet the demand for preparing teachers. The National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE) as a statutory body is responsible for planned and coordinated development of the teacher education system throughout the country. The Central Institute of English and Foreign languages (CIEFL), Indira Gandhi National Open University, (IGNOU) also offers certificate and diploma in teacher education.	Traditionally, teacher education is offered as a 2-year diploma (D.Ed.) and 1 year Bachelor (B.Ed.) programme to teach in elementary and secondary school respectively. The Bachelors of Elementary Education (B.El.Ed.) degree is the only 4-year integrated professional degree programme in India (Batra, 2009). There is a vast network of private organization and non-government agencies providing teaching certification in India. Currently, teacher education programme is undergoing substantial reform with significant focus centered on the building of intellectual links between universities and teacher education institutions and increased durations of programmes. Those enrolled in 4 year university programmes have their practicum spread over 4 years: 1 week in the first year, 3 weeks in the third year, and 16–18 weeks in the fourth year.	The 4-year Bachelors of Elementary Education (B.El.Ed.) is a benchmark programme in the country which prepares teachers to critically engage with theories and challenge status quo questions of caste, community and gender asymmetry (Batra, 2005). In their final year, preservice teachers conduct two action-research projects which focus on sociological and pedagogical aspects of their teaching.
Pakistan	Since gaining independence from Britain in 1947, Pakistani policy makers have worked hard to shift the field of education from being colonial and administratively driven to being professional and forward-moving (Rizvi, 2013). This shift is outlined in the report of the Commission of National Education in 1959, which called for a complete restructuring of the country’s educational system. This restructuring has proven to be a difficult goal to put into action.	All teacher education institutions are provincially administered in Pakistan. Each of the provinces has its own unique structure with different nomenclatures. The Federal Ministry of Education brings together responsibilities for different sub-sectors of education. Within a Province or Area Administration, the authority is further divided across District and Institutional levels. Teacher education has traditionally been considered as a provincial subject. Each province has a distinct centralized organizational structure to prepare teachers for schools of different levels.	A practicum is a compulsory component of all teacher education programmes in Pakistan. Also, most teacher education programme offering institutions have practice schools attached to them, many of which are under-resourced. In the teacher education programmes, Islamic ethical values are heavily emphasized in professional development .	Becoming a teacher remains the last choice of an occupation in Pakistan (Rizvi, 2013). Teaching is not regarded as a full-time profession. Most male teachers are engaged in other jobs, small businesses or work on farms after school hours. The teaching workforce in the private sector has grown significantly in recent years. The majority of teachers are employed at the middle and secondary school levels. Many private schools have developed their own teacher training programmes with a clear emphasis on content area preparation.
SOUTH-EAST ASIA
Malaysia	Malaysia is an ex-British colony which gained its political independence in 1957. Malaysia is a society divided by race, language, religion, culture, and to some extent by occupational and regional differences.	Currently, Malaysia has a democratic political system, ruled by a coalition. The government under the banner of the National Front is comprised of representatives of primarily three political parties. The Ministry of Education regulates teacher education in Malaysia.	Teacher education occurs at two levels, with the training of non-graduate teachers in the teacher training colleges and the training of graduate teachers in Malaysian universities. Graduate teachers for the secondary schools are mostly trained in the universities which offer two types of teacher education programmes: one being the consecutive programme; the other being the concurrent programme.	Malaysia’s aim is to have all elementary and secondary teachers in the country prepared in universities. The Ministry of Education has declared that all teachers in Malaysian secondary schools and 50 % of teachers in primary schools will be university-educated by the beginning of 2016.
Philippines	The Philippines was colonized first by Spain and then by the U.S. It was also occupied by Japan during World War II . Like its neighbor, Singapore, the Philippines emerged from its checkered colonial past with a citizenry that highly respects quality education. From the time the Spanish colonizers established a school system more than a century ago, the preparation of Filipino teachers has occupied center stage in the growth of the educational system in the Philippines.	In 1997, the Commission on Higher Education (CHED), which governs teacher education in the Philippines reported that there were 815 teacher education institutions (TEIs). Approximately 85% of the institutions are private, and the rest are state-supported. According to UNESCO , the Philippines spends less than 1/11 and 1/8 of what Singapore and Thailand, respectively, dedicate to education.	Teachers in the Philippines generally complete a 4-year college degree in education, and, in addition, must jump the hurdle of a difficult national licensure examination.	The financial situation of the education sector has made teaching an unattractive profession in the Philippines. A public school teacher’s maximum salary is P10,000. This, according to the National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA), is short of the P16,710 needed for an average family to survive. Also, teachers’ conditions in the work environment (20 h of active teaching, 15 h of lesson planning , 10 h of other assigned duties, etc.) are not conducive to professional growth.
Singapore	After serving as a British colony, Singapore emerged as an independent nation whose leadership has greatly valued teaching and teacher education. Singapore’s teacher education model draws its assumptions and practices from the UK. The National Institute of Education is the single source of initial teacher education graduates and is responsible for almost all educational research and professional development courses.	The Ministry of Education in Singapore hires the nation’s teachers. The National Institute of Education, as mentioned earlier, prepares them. The National Institute of Education (NIE ) works in partnership with the Ministry of Education and the schools, NIE to provide all levels of teacher education, from initial teacher education programmes to professional development programmes for in-service teachers and executive leadership programmes for principals, department heads and other school leaders.	The Ministry of Education offers “Teaching as a Career” seminars to attract potential candidates to the profession. Individuals apply to be teachers on the Ministry’s website. Those who are shortlisted and successfully interviewed are allowed entry to the national university programme. The Postgraduate Diploma in Education (PGDE) programme consists of educational studies (20%); curriculum studies (50%), practicum (25%) and language enhancement and academic discourse skills (5%). In the practicum year, preservice teachers not only receive their tuition from the National Institute of Education, but are also paid a full salary and receive benefits equivalent to other Singaporean civil servants.	All preservice teachers in Singapore are guaranteed teaching positions. Singapore is one of a handful of nations that systematically seeks to attract and retain the most talented teachers possible. Also, NIE encourages student teachers to participate in overseas service learning journeys and to complete exchange semesters at overseas universities. In addition, the formal curriculum also helps to expose student teachers to global issues and raises their understanding of the common challenges and focus across national boundaries.
AUSTRALIA AND THE SOUTH PACIFIC
Australia	Teacher education in Australia has been deeply influenced by the English due to colonial ties and Australia’s continued association with Britain. Variation in the level of teacher quality is seen in the Australian educational system.	There are overlapping responsibilities of states and the Commonwealth for universities and teacher preparation. Generic national professional teaching standards are mandated across Australia through the Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL) (McGraw, 2014). Preservice teacher education programmes are designed by faculties in universities , which are subsequently authorized by the states through boards, councils or institutes of registration (Sim, 2006).	Selection for teacher education in Australia is based on Grade 12 results, or first-degree results, in the case of graduate entry programmes (Sim, 2006). The preparation of primary teachers is of a generalist nature. There are also specializations in Health, Physical Education, Science, Mathematics and Music available. At the secondary level, preservice teachers major in two subject areas. Graduate entry programmes are 1 or 2-years in duration and vary across faculties. Pedagogical preparation more than subject area content preparation is emphasized (Sim, 2006). Preservice teacher education programmes typically involve a culminating teaching portfolio that provides documentation of their achievements in terms of academic performance and professional attributes (Sim, 2006).	Australia is developing new programmes that value the teacher as scholar (Aspland, 2006), which indicates that the country is making a commitment to a more scholarly orientation to teacher development. Australia is dealing with an aging teacher workforce and increasing retirement due to somewhat pernicious working conditions in some of its schools. Teacher retention and attrition has become a burgeoning issue in Australia.
New Zealand	New Zealand was colonized by Great Britain in the nineteenth century. While the country has been fully independent for many years, Queen Elizabeth II is still the country’s official head of state.	Education in New Zealand is directed by the central government through the Ministry of Education. The Minister of Education has responsibility for the quality and supply of teachers. Teacher education is specifically regulated by the Education Council of Aotearoa New Zealand (EDUCANZ), which approves and monitors initial teacher education, the registration of teachers and the maintenance of professional standards (Ell, 2011).	There are 15 providers of initial teacher education for primary teachers, offering 32 different specializations. There are nine providers for secondary teachers, offering 15 specializations. Seven of the country’s eight universities offer programmes for both sectors. In primary teacher education there are several providers offering Maori-medium preparation. Other providers in both sectors are church-based organizations or private institutes (Ell, 2011). Once teacher candidates have completed their formal preparation, they apply for teaching positions as provisionally registered teachers. The provisional registration period is a minimum of 2 years of continuous service in an appropriate position. Then, the provisionally registered teacher (PRT) must demonstrate to the EDUCANZ that they have met the registered teacher criteria. This is commonly achieved through the preparation of a portfolio of evidence (Ell, 2011). The schools in which PRTs are placed receive additional funding to provide induction for 1 day per week in the first year of teaching, and half a day per week in the second year. The activities for the induction period are planned by the schools.	All prospective teacher education students are interviewed and assessed in terms of their communication, numeracy and literacy skills, by selection committees representing different sectors of society (Ell, 2011).

Appendix 2: Teacher Education Programme Type by Country and by Region

Country	Programme-type	Consecutive/concurrent	Duration in years	Grade span	Specialization
North America
Canada (i.e., Nova Scotia)	Primary	Consecutive	4 + 2	1–6	Generalist
	Secondary (Junior + Senior)	Consecutive	4 + 2	7+	Specialist
United States	Primary	Concurrent	4–6	1–3/4/5	Generalist
	Primary	Consecutive	4 + 1	1–3/4/5	Generalist
	Primary + Secondary	Concurrent	4	4/5–8/9	Specialist
	Primary + Secondary	Consecutive	4 + 1	4/5–8/9	Specialist
	Secondary	Concurrent	4	6–12	Specialist
	Secondary	Consecutive	4 + 1	6–12	Specialist
Central America
Mexico	Post-graduate 4 (during in-service)	Consecutive	2	10–12	Specialist
Caribbean
Cuba	Undergraduate – Primary	Consecutive	5	1–6	Generalist
South America
Argentina	Tertiary Early Childhood Education (Not undergraduate)	Concurrent	4	Infants	Generalist
	Tertiary Elementary education (Not undergraduate)	Concurrent	4	1–7	Generalist
	Undergraduate + pedagogic courses	Consecutive	4 + 1–2	8–12	Specialist
Brazil	Certificate Level (Training Colleges)	Concurrent	3	1–5	Generalist
	Diploma Level (Training Colleges)	Consecutive	3–4 + 1	6–9	Specialist
	Degree Level Bachelor (University)	Consecutive	5	High school	Specialist
Chile	Generalist	Concurrent	4	1–8	Generalist
	Generalist with Further Education	Concurrent	4	5–8
West Europe/United Kingdom
England	Undergraduate	Consecutive
	Postgraduate	Consecutive	1	1–5
	Postgraduate	Consecutive	1	6–12
	Employment-based	Concurrent
Northern Ireland	Undergraduate	Consecutive	3	K-4	Generalist
	Postgraduate	Consecutive	4	5–12	Specialist
Scotland	Bachelor of Education	Consecutive	4
	Postgraduate	Consecutive	5
Wales	Undergraduate	Consecutive	3	K-3	Generalist/specialist
				4–7
				Primary (children aged 3–11)
	Postgraduate	Consecutive	1 year	Primary (children aged 3–11);	Generalist/specialist
				Specialist secondary (children aged 11–18)
France	Postgraduate	Consecutive			Generalist/specialist
Finland	Undergraduate & Postgraduate – primary	concurrent	3 + 2	1–6	Generalist
Germany	Grade 1–4 Teachers	Hybrid	3.5 + 2	1–4	Generalist
	Grades 1–9/10 with at least two teaching subjects	Hybrid	3.5 + 2	1–9/10	Specialist (2 subject areas)
	Grades 5/7–9/10 with at least two teaching subjects	Hybrid	4 + 2	5/7–9/10	Specialist (2 subject areas)
	Grades 5/7–12/13 with at least two teaching subjects	Hybrid	4 + 2	5/7–12/13	Specialist (2 subject areas)
Netherlands	Primary or secondary	Consecutive in universities	1 after a 4 year bachelor		Generalist
	Primary or secondary	Concurrent in Universities of Applied Sciences (UAS)	4		Generalist
	Secondary		1 year after master’s degree		Specialist
Norway	General Teacher Education with Subject Option (All)	Concurrent	4	1–10	Generalist with extra subject preparation
	General Teacher Education (All)	Concurrent	4	8+	Generalist
	Teacher Education Programme	Consecutive	3 + 1 or 5 + 1	8+	Specialist (2 subject areas)
	Master of Science/Arts	Concurrent	5	5–12	Specialist (2 subject areas)
Switzerland	Teacher for 1–2/3	Concurrent	3	1–2/3	Generalist
	Teacher for Primary School	Concurrent	3	1–6	Generalist
	Teacher for Primary School	Concurrent	3	3–6	Generalist
	Teacher for Secondary School	Concurrent and consecutive	4.5	7–9	Generalist and Specialist
	Teacher for Secondary	Consecutive	6	9–11	Specialist
Spain	Teacher of Primary Education	Concurrent	4	1–6	Generalist
	Teacher of secondary school		4 + 2		specialist
Sweden	Undergraduate	Concurrent	3–5	k-3	Generalist
	Post graduate	Concurrent	4	4–6	Generalist
	Undergraduate	Concurrent	3	k-6	Generalist
	Post graduate	Concurrent	4–5	7–9	Specialist
	Post graduate	Consecutive	5	9 and above	Specialist
East Europe and the Former Soviet Union
Czech Republic	Undergraduate	Concurrent	3		Generalist
	Undergraduate	Concurrent	3		Generalist
	Post graduate		2		Specialist
Estonia	Undergraduate	Concurrent	3	K - 2
	Post graduate	Concurrent	5	1–6	Generalist
	Post graduate	Consecutive	3 + 2	5–12	Specialist
Georgia	Bachelors	Concurrent	3	5–12	Specialist
	Masters	Concurrent	5	5–12	Specialist
	Masters	Consecutive	5	5–12	Specialist
Greece	Undergraduate	Consecutive	4	1–6	Generalist
Kazakhstan	Undergraduate		3–4	4	Generalist
	Post graduate		1–2	5–11	Specialist
Poland	Bachelor of Pedagogy, Integrated Teaching	Concurrent	3	1–3	Generalist
	Bachelor’s degree	Concurrent	3	4–12	Specialist
	Post graduate	Concurrent	3 + 2	8–12	Specialist
Russian Federation	Primary Teacher Education	Concurrent	5	5–11	Generalist
		Concurrent	5	1–6	Specialist
Slovakia	Bachelor’s + Master’s degree	Concurrent	3 + 2		Generalist with one or two subject area preparations
Turkey	Bachelor’s degree Primary teachers	Concurrent	4		Generalist
	Bachelor’s Degree Secondary teachers	Consecutive	5		Generalist
Middle East
Cyprus	Bachelor’s degree Primary teachers	Concurrent	4		Generalist with two extra subject preparations
	Bachelor’s degree in the subject of specialization Secondary teachers	Concurrent	4		Specialist
	A first degree + a postgraduate qualification in the specialist area Special education	Consecutive			Specialist
Egypt	Undergraduate Basic education and general secondary education teachers	Concurrent			Generalist/ Specialist
Israel	Teacher Training College Lower secondary teachers	Concurrent	3/4	k-10	Generalist
	University Academic Schools of Education	Consecutive	3/4		Specialist
	Bachelor’s degree in a disciplinary field
	Upper secondary school teachers
Iran	Associate degree in primary teaching (2 years after high school)	Concurrent	2	1–5	Generalist
	Primary teachers
	Associate degree in one specialized subject	Concurrent	2		Specialist
	Lower secondary level teachers
	Bachelor’s degree in one specialized subject	Concurrent	4		Specialist
	Upper secondary level teachers
Oman	Bachelor of Education (University)	Concurrent	5	5–12	Specialist
	Diploma after Degree	Consecutive	5 + 1	5–12	Specialist
	Bachelor of Education (colleges of education)	Concurrent	4	1–6	Specialist
Africa
Botswana	Diploma in Primary Education	Concurrent	3	1–7	Generalist
	Diploma in Secondary Education, College of Education	Concurrent	3	8–10	Specialist
	Bachelor of Secondary Education, University of Botswana	Concurrent	4	8–12	Specialist
	Bachelor of Education (Primary)	Concurrent	4		Specialist
South Africa	Bachelor of Education	Concurrent	4
	Bachelor of Education with Post-Graduate Certificate in Education	Consecutive	4 + 1
Zambia	Certificate Level	Concurrent	2		Generalist
	Diploma Level	Consecutive	2 + 1		Specialist
	Degree Level (University)	Consecutive	2 + 2		Specialist
Kenya	Certificate (teacher training colleges)	Concurrent	2 residential programme	1–5	Generalist
	Diploma (teacher training colleges)	Concurrent		6–12	Specialist
	Bachelors (University)	Consecutive		6–12	Specialist
South Asia
China	Elementary Teacher Education	Concurrent	3 + 2		Generalist\specialist
	Elementary Teacher Education	Consecutive	4 + 2		Generalist\specialist
	Secondary Teacher Education	Concurrent	4		Specialist
	Secondary Teacher Education	Consecutive	4 + 2		Specialist
South Korea	Elementary (Education Schools)	Concurrent	4	1–6	Generalist
	Secondary (Colleges + Universities)	Consecutive	4	7–12	Specialist
Taiwan	Certificate Level	Concurrent	2	1–6	Generalist
	Certificate Level	Concurrent	2	1–6	Specialist
Japan	Elementary school teacher training programmes	Concurrent	4	7	Generalist
East Asia
India	Post graduate Certificate	Concurrent	1		Specialist
	Diploma (District Institutes) Primary	Concurrent	2	1–5	Generalist
	Bachelor Degree + Post graduate in education	Consecutive	3–4 + 1	5–12	Specialist
	Bachelors in education (University)	Concurrent	4	1–8	Specialist/generalist
Pakistan	Certificate Level	Concurrent	1		Generalist
	Diploma Level	Concurrent	2
	Degree Level (University)	Concurrent	2–4		Specialist
South-East Asia
Malaysia	Bachelor of Education, Primary	Concurrent	4	1–6	Specialist (2 subject areas)
	Diploma of Education (subject areas)	Concurrent	4 + 1	1–6	Specialist (2 subject areas)
	Malaysian Diploma of Teaching	Concurrent	3	1–6	Specialist
	Bachelor of Education, Secondary	Concurrent	4	7+	Specialist (2 subject areas)
	Bachelor of Arts/Science in Education, Secondary	Concurrent	4	1–10	Specialist (2 subject areas)
Philippines	Bachelor in Elementary Education	Concurrent	4	7–10	Generalist
	Bachelor in Secondary Education	Concurrent	4	1–3	Specialist
Singapore	Post-Graduation, Diploma in Education, Primary Option	Consecutive	4 + 1	1–6	Generalist
	Bachelor of Arts in Education, Primary	Concurrent	4	1–6	Generalist
	Bachelor of Science in Education, Primary	Concurrent	4	1–6	Generalist
	Diploma of Education, Primary Option	concurrent	2	1–6	Generalist
	Post-Graduate Diploma in Education, Secondary	Consecutive	4 + 1	7–10	Specialist (in two subject areas)
	Post-Graduate Diploma in Education, Junior College	Consecutive	4 + 1	11–12	Specialist
AUSTRALIA AND THE SOUTH PACIFIC
New Zealand	Undergraduate	Concurrent	4	1–8	Generalist
	Post graduate diploma	Consecutive	1	1–8	Generalist
	Post graduate diploma	Consecutive	1	8–12	Specialist