Abstract
Observations of massive, extended discs around both pre-main-sequence and main-sequence stellar systems indicate that protoplanetary discs larger than the observed planetary system are a common phenomenon, while the existence of large comets suggests that the total cometary mass is much greater than previous estimates. Both observations suggest that theories of the origin of the solar system are best approached from the perspective provided by theories of star formation, in particular that the protoplanetary disc may have extended up to ~103 AU. A model with a surface density distribution similar to a minimum-mass solar nebula, but extending further in radius, is derived by considering the gravitational collapse of a uniform, slowly rotating molecular cloud. The boundary of the planetary system is determined not by lack of mass, as in previous ’mass-limited’ models (i.e. those with a sharp decrease in surface density ∑ beyond the radius of the observed planetary system), but instead by the increasing collision time between the comets or planetesimals initially formed by gravitational instability beyond the planetary zone. Bodies formed beyond ~50 AU have sizes on the order of 102 km and represent a collisionally unevolved population; they are composed of relatively small, unaltered clumps of interstellar dust and ices with individual sizes estimated to range up to ~10m. By contrast, bodies formed closer in, for example in the Uranus-Neptune zone, consist of larger agglomerations of dust and ices with individual sizes ranging up to ~1 km. Planetesimals formed by gravitational instability at smaller heliocentric distances r are typically much smaller than those formed further out, the masses m p being proportional to ∑3 r 6, but subsequent collisional aggregation in the planetary region is expected to produce bodies with sizes ranging up to 102 km or more. In both cases the first-formed solid objects may be identified with observed cometary nuclei; some accumulate to produce the outer planets, but the majority are ejected, either to interstellar space or into the Oort cloud. Observed comets represent a dynamically well-mixed group from various sources; they are expected to comprise a heterogeneous mix of both pristine and relatively altered material and to have a broad mass distribution ranging up to the size of the largest planetesimals.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Arnold, J.R. : 1977. “Condensation and agglomeration of grains.” In Comets, Asteroids, Meteorites : Interrelations, Evolution and Origins (A.H. Delsemme, Ed.), IAU Coll. No. 39, 519–524, University of Toledo Press.
Artymowicz, P., Burrows, C. and Paresce, F. : 1989. “The structure of the Beta Pictoris circumstellar disk from combined IRAS and coronographic observations.” Astrophys. J. ,337, 494–513.
Aumann, H.H. : 1985. “IRAS observations of matter around nearby stars.” Publ. Astron. Soc. Pac. ,97, 885–891.
Aumann, H.H., Gillett, F.C., Beichman, C.A., De Jong, T., Houck, J.R., Low, F.J., Ne-ugebauer, G., Walker, R.G. and Wesselius, P.R. : 1984. “Discovery of a shell around Alpha Lyrae.” Astrophys. J. Lett. ,278, L23–L27.
Backman, D.A. and Paresce, F. : 1993. “Main-sequence stars with circumstellar solid material : the Vega phenomenon.” In Protostars and Planets III (E.H. Levy, J.I. Lunine, Eds.), 1253–1304, University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Baggaley, W.J., Taylor, A.D. and Steel, D.I. : 1993. “The influx of meteoroids with hyperbolic heliocentric orbits.” In Meteoroids and their Parent Bodies (J. Štohl, I.P. Williams, Eds.), 53–56. Slovak Acad. Sci., Bratislava, Slovakia.
Bailey, M.E. : 1987a. “Giant grains around protostars.” Quart. J. Roy. Astron. Soc. ,28, 242–247.
Bailey, M.E. : 1987b. “The formation of comets in wind-driven shells around protostars.” Icarus ,69, 70–82.
Bailey, M.E. : 1988. “Comets in star-forming regions.” In Dust in the Universe (M.E. Bailey, D.A. Williams, Eds.), 113–120, Cambridge University Press.
Bailey, M.E. : 1990. “Cometary masses.” In Baryonic Dark Matter (D. Lynden-Bell, G. Gilmore, Eds.), 7–35. Kluwer, Dordrecht.
Bailey, M.E. : 1991a. “Comets and molecular clouds : the sink and the source.” In Molecular Clouds (R.A. James, T.J. Millar, Eds.), 273–289, Cambridge University Press.
Bailey, M.E. : 1991b. “Comet craters versus asteroid craters.” Adv. Space Res. ,11, No. 6, (6)43–(6)60.
Bailey, M.E., Clube, S.V.M. and Napier, W.M. : 1990. “The Origin of Comets.” Pergamon Press, Oxford.
Bailey, M.E., Chambers, J.E. and Hahn, G. : 1992. “Detection of comet nuclei at large heliocentric distances.” Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc. ,254, 581–588.
Bailey, M.E., Clube, S.V.M., Hahn, G., Napier, W.M. and Valsecchi, G.B. : 1994. “Hazards due to giant comets : climate and short-term catastrophism.” In Hazards due to Comets and Asteroids (T. Gehreis, Ed.), University of Arizona press, in press.
Bailey, M.E. and Stagg, C.R. : 1988. “Cratering constraints on the inner Oort cloud : steady-state models.” Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc. ,235, 1–32.
Bar-Nun, A. and Kleinfeld, I. : 1989. “On the temperature and gas composition in the region of comet formation.” Icarus ,80, 243–253.
Beckwith, S.V.W. and Sargent, A.I. : 1993. “The occurrence and properties of disks around young stars.” In Protostars and Planets III (E.H. Levy, J.I. Lunine, Eds.), 521–541, University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Beckwith, S.V.W., Sargent, A.I., Chini, R.S. and Güsten, R. : 1990. “A survey for circumstellar disks around young stellar objects.” Astron. J. ,09, 924–945.
Bhatt, H.C. : 1986. “Large dust grains in the dark cloud B5.” Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc. ,222, 383–391.
Biermann, L. and Michel, K.W. : 1978. “The origin of cometary nuclei in the presolar nebula.” Moon and Planets ,18, 447–464.
Binney, J. and Tremaine, S. : 1987. “Galactic Dynamics.” Princeton University Press, Princeton.
Bode, M.F. : 1988. “Obervations and modelling of circumstellar dust.” In Dust in the Universe (M.E. Bailey, D.A. Williams, Eds.), 73–102, Cambridge University Press.
Brooks, A.M. : 1990. “Aggregation of grains in the protosolar nebula.” In Asteroids Comets Meteors III (C.-I. Lagerkvist, H. Rickman, B.A. Lindblad, M. Lindgren, Eds.), 25–28, Uppsala Univ. Reprocentralen.
Brooks, A.M. : 1992. “Random Aggregation and the Formation of Comets.” Thesis, University of Manchester.
Brophy, T.G. : 1991. “Does debris from the formation of other planetary systems impact Earth?” Icarus ,94, 250–254.
Burke, J.R. and Silk, J. : 1976. “The dynamical interaction of a newly formed protostar with infalling matter : the origin of interstellar grains.” Astrophys. J. ,210, 341–364.
Cameron, A.G.W. : 1962. “The formation of the sun and planets.” Icarus ,1, 13–69.
Cameron, A.G.W. : 1978. “Physics of the primitive solar accretion disk.” Moon and Planets ,18, 5–40.
Cameron, A.G.W. : 1985. “Formation and evolution of the primitive solar nebula.” In Protostars and Planets II (D.C. Black, M.S. Matthews, Eds.), 1073–1099, University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Cameron, A.G.W. : 1988. “Origin of the solar system.” Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. ,26, 441–472.
Cameron, A.G.W. and Pine, M.R. : 1973. ‘Numerical models of the primitive solar nebula.’ Icarus ,18, 377–406.
Clayton, D.D. : 1982. “Cosmic chemical memory : a new astronomy.” Quart. J. Roy. Astron. Soc. ,23, 174–212.
Clayton, D.D. and Liffman, K. : 1988. “Monte-Carlo histories of refractory interstellar dust.” In Dust in the Universe (M.E. Bailey, D.A. Williams, Eds.), 343–354, Cambridge University Press.
Clayton, D.D., Scowen, P. and Liffman, K. : 1989. “Age structure of refractory interstellar dust and isotopic consequences.” Astrophys. J. ,346, 531–538.
Donn, B.D. : 1990. “The formation and structure of fluffy cometary nuclei from random accumulation of grains.” Astron. Astrophys. ,235, 441–446.
Donn, B.D. and Hughes, D.W. : 1986. “A fractal model of a cometary nucleus formed by random aggregation.” In 20th ESLAB Symposium on the Exploration of Halley’s Comet (B. Battrick, E.J. Rolfe, R. Reinhard, Eds.), ESA SP-250 Vol. III, 523–524, ESA Publications, Noordwijk.
Donnison, J.R. : 1986. “The distribution of cometary magnitudes.” Astron. Astrophys. ,167, 359–363.
Duncan, M. and Quinn, T. : 1993a. “ The long-term dynamical evolution of the solar system.” Ann. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. ,31, 265–295.
Duncan, M. and Quinn, T. : 1993b. “The long-term dynamical evolution and stability of the solar system.” In Protostars and Planets III (E.H. Levy, J.I. Lunine, Eds.), 1371–1394, University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Duncan, M., Quinn, T. and Tremaine, S. : 1987. “The formation and extent of the solar system comet cloud.” Astron. J. ,04, 1330–1338.
Elmegreen, B.G. : 1981. “Grain formation behind shocks and the origin of isotopically anomalous meteoritic inclusions.” Astrophys. J. ,251, 820–833.
Elsässer, H., Birkle, K., Eiroa, C. and Lenzen, R. : 1982. “On the infrared sources 1 and 2 in NGC 7538.” Astron. Astrophys. ,108, 274–278.
Engel, S., Lunine, J.I. and Lewis, J.S. : 1990. “Solar nebula origin for volatile gases in Halley’s comet.” Icarus ,85, 380–393.
Fegley, B. and Prinn, R.G. : 1989. “Solar nebula chemistry : implications for volatiles in the solar system.” In The Formation and Evolution of Planetary Systems (H.A. Weaver, L. Danly, Eds.), 171–211, Cambridge University Press.
Fernández, J.A. and Ip, W.-H. : 1991, “Structure and evolutionary aspects of cometary orbits.” In Comets in the Post-Halley Era (R.L. Newburn Jr., M. Neugebauer, J. Rahe, Eds.) IAU Coll. No. 116, Vol. 1, 487–535, Kluwer, Dordrecht.
Fogg, M.J. : 1990. “Interstellar planets.” Comments Asirophys. ,14, 357–375.
Gehrz, R.D. : 1989. “Sources of stardust in the Galaxy.” In Interstellar Dust (L.J. Alla-mandola, A.G.G.M. Tielens, Eds.), IAU Symp. No. 135, 445–453. Kluwer, Dordrecht.
Goldreich, P. and Ward, W.R. : 1973. “The formation of planetesimals.” Asirophys. J. ,188, 1051–1061.
Greenberg, J.M. : 1988. “The interstellar dust model of comets : post Halley.” In Dust in the Universe (M.E. Bailey, D.A. Williams, Eds.), 121–143, Cambridge University Press.
Greenberg, J.M. : 1989. “The core-mantle model of interstellar grains and the cosmic dust connection.” In Interstellar Dust (L.J. Allamandola, A.G.G.M. Tielens, Eds.), IAU Symp. No. 135, 345–355. Kluwer, Dordrecht.
Greenberg, J.M. and Hage, J.I. : 1990. “From interstellar dust to comets : a unification of observational constraints.” Astrophys. J., 361, 260–274.
Greenberg, R. : 1985. “The origin of comets among the accreting outer planets.” In Dynamics of Comets : Their Origin and Evolution (A. Carusi, G.B. Valsecchi), IAU Coll. No. 83, 3–10, Reidel, Dordrecht.
Greenberg, R. : 1989. “Planetary accretion.” In Origin and Evolution of Planetary and Satellite Atmospheres (S.K. Atreya, J.B. Pollack, M.S. Matthews, Eds.), 137–164, University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Greenberg, R., Weidenschilling, S.J., Chapman, C.R. and Davis, D.R. : 1984. “From icy planetesimals to outer planets and comets.” Icarus ,59, 87–113.
Grün, E., Zook, H.A., Baguhl, M., Balogh, A., Bame, S.J., Fechtig, H., Forsyth, R., Hanner, M.S., Horanyi, M., Kissel, J., Lindblad, B.-A., Linkert, D., Linkert, G., Mann, I., McDonnell, J.A.M., Morfill, G.E., Phillips, J.L., Polanskey, C., Schwehm, G., Siddique, N., Staubach, P., Svestka, J. and Taylor, A. : 1993. “Discovery of jovian dust streams and interstellar grains by the Ulysses spacecraft.” Nature ,862, 428–430.
Hills, J.G. : 1981. “Comet showers and the steady-state infall of comets from the Oort cloud.” Astron. J. ,86, 1730–1740.
Hills, J.G. : 1982. “The formation of comets by radiation pressure in the outer protosun.” Astron. J. ,87, 906–910.
Horedt, G.P. : 1979. “Cosmogony of the solar system.” Moon and Planets ,21, 63–121.
Hughes, D.W. : 1987. “The history of Halley’s comet.” Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. ,A828, 349–367.
Jenkins, E.B. : 1989. “Insights on dust grain formation and destruction provided by gasphase element abundances.” In Interstellar Dust (L.J. Allamandola, A.G.G.M. Tielens, Eds.), IAU Symp. No. 135, 23–36. Kluwer, Dordrecht.
Jewitt, D.C. and Meech, K.J. : 1988. “Optical properties of cometary nuclei and a preliminary comparison with asteroids.” Astrophys. J., 328, 974–986.
Jura, M. : 1980. “Origin of large interstellar grains toward ρ Ophiuchi.” Astrophys. J. ,285, 63–65.
Kessel’man, V.S. : 1978. “The effect of turbulence on the coagulation of interstellar dust.” Sov. Astron. ,22, 276–278.
Kessel’man, V.S. : 1979. “Influence of turbulence on the growth of solid particles in contracting interstellar clouds.” Sov. Astron. ,23, 475–479.
Knacke, R.F. : 1989. “Comet dust : connections with interstellar dust.” In Interstellar Dust (L.J. Allamandola, A.G.G.M. Tielens, Eds.), IAU Symp. No. 135, 415–428. Kluwer, Dordrecht.
Larson, R.B. and Starrfield, S. : 1971. “On the formation of massive stars and the upper limit of stellar masses.” Astron. Astrophys. ,13, 190–197.
Lefèvre, J. : 1974. “Coagulation of interstellar grains in the Rho Ophiuchi dark cloud.” Astron. Astrophys. ,37, 17–19.
Liffman, K. : 1990. “The effect of catastrophic collisional fragmentation and diffuse medium accretion on a computational interstellar dust system.” Astrophys. J. ,355, 518–535.
Lin, D.N.C. and Papaloizou, J. : 1985. “On the dynamical evolution of the solar system.” In Protostars and Planets II (D.C. Black, M.S. Matthews, Eds.), 981–1072, University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Lissauer, J. : 1993. “Planet formation.” Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. ,31, 129–174.
Lissauer, J. and Stewart, G.R. : 1993. “Growth of planets from planetesimals.” In Protostars and Planets III (E.H. Levy, J.I. Lunine, Eds.), 1061–1088, University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Lunine, J.I. : 1989. “Primitive bodies : molecular abundances in Comet Halley as probes of cometary formation environments.” In The Formation and Evolution of Planetary Systems (H.A. Weaver, L. Danly, Eds.), 213–242, Cambridge University Press.
Marochnik, L.S. and Mukhin, L.M. : 1988. “The Halley missions : does the solar system contain copious unseen mass?” Sov. Astron. Lett. ,14, 241–242.
Marochnik, L.S., Mukhin, L.M. and Sagdeev, R.Z. : 1988. “Estimates of mass and angular momentum in the Oort cloud.” Science ,242, 547–550.
Marochnik, L.S., Mukhin, L.M. and Sagdeev, R.Z. : 1989. “The distribution of mass and angular momentum in the solar system.” Sov. Sci. Rev. E. Astrophys. Space Phys. ,8, 1–55.
Mathis, J.S., Rumpl, W. and Nordseick, K.H. : 1977. “The size distribution of interstellar grains.” Astrophys. J. ,217, 425–433.
Mathis, J.S. and Wallenhorst, S.G. : 1981. “The size distribution of interstellar particles. III. Peculiar extinctions and normal infrared extinction.” Astrophys. J. ,244, 483–492.
McKee, C.F. : 1989. “Dust destruction in the interstellar medium.” In Interstellar Dust (L.J. Allamandola, A.G.G.M. Tielens, Eds.), IAU Symp. No. 135, 431–443. Kluwer, Dordrecht.
McKee, C.F., Zweibel, E.G., Goodman, A.G. and Heiles, C. : 1993. “Magnetic fields in star-forming regions : theory.” In Protostars and Planets III (E.H. Levy, J.I. Lunine, Eds.), 327–366. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Meakin, P. and Donn, B. : 1988. “Aerodynamic properties of fractal grains : implications for the primordial solar nebula.” Astrophys. J. Lett. ,329, L39–L41.
Meakin, P., Vicsek, T., and Family, F. : 1985. “Dynamic cluster-size distribution in cluster-cluster aggregation : effects of cluster diffusivity.” Phys. Rev. B, 31, 564–569.
Mendis, D.A. and Marconi, L. : 1986. “A note on the total mass of comets in the solar system.” Earth, Moon, Planets ,36, 187–191.
Mestel, L. : 1963. “On the Galactic law of rotation.” Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc. ,126, 553–575.
Mestel, L. and Ray, T.P. : 1985. “Disc-like magneto-gravitational equilibria.” Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc. ,212, 275–302.
Mestel, L. and Spitzer, L. : 1956. “Star formation in magnetic dust clouds.” Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc. ,116, 503–514.
Mizuno, H. : 1989. “Grain growth in the turbulent accretion disk solar nebula.” Icarus ,80, 189–201.
Montmerle, T., Feigelson, E.D., Bouvier, J. and André, P. : 1993. “Magnetic fields, activity and circumstellar material around young stellar objects.” In Protostars and Planets III (E.H. Levy, J.I. Lunine, Eds.), 689–717, University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Morfill, G.E. and Völk, H.J. : 1984. “Transport of dust and vapor and chemical fractionation in the early protosolar cloud.” Astrophys. J. ,287, 371–395.
Mumma, M.J., Weissman, P.R. and Stern, S.A. : 1993. “Comets and the origin of the solar system : reading the Rosetta stone.” In Protostars and Planets III (E.H. Levy, J.I. Lunine, Eds.), 1177–1252, University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Nakagawa, Y., Hayashi, C. Nakazawa, K. : 1983. “Accumulation of planetesimals in the solar nebula.” Icarus 54, 361–376.
Nakano, T. : 1987. “Formation of planets around stars of various masses -I. Formulation and a star of one solar mass.” Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc. ,224, 107–130.
Napier, W.M. : 1990. “Interstellar planetesimals.” In Dusty Objects in the Universe (E. Bussoletti, A.A. Vittone, Eds.), 103–110. Kluwer, Dordrecht.
Opik, E.J. : 1973. “Comets and the formation of planets.” Astrophys. Space Sci. ,21, 307–398.
Piirola, V., Scaltriti, F. and Coyne, G.V. : 1992. “Circumstellar disks deduced from sub-arcsecond polarization observations of two young stars.” Nature ,359, 399–401.
Pringle, J.E. : 1989. “The Egg Nebula : a protostellar disc remanant around an evolved star.” Mon. Not Roy. Astron. Soc. ,238, 37P–40P.
Prinn, R.G. : 1993 “Chemistry and evolution of gaseous circumstellar disks.” In Protostars and Planets III (E.H. Levy, J.I. Lunine, Eds.), 1005–1028, University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Rouan, D. and Léger, A. : 1984. “Large grains in Orion are indicated by IR polarization and flux data.” Astron. Astrophys. ,132, L1–L4.
Safronov, V.S. : 1969. “Evolution of the Protoplanetary Cloud and Formation of the Earth.” Israel programme for scientific translations, Jerusalem 1972.
Safronov, V.S. and Ruzmaikina, T.V. : 1985. “Formation of the solar nebula and the planets.” In Protostars and Planets II (D.C. Black, M.S. Matthews, Eds.), 959–980, University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Sandford, S.A. : 1989. “Interstellar dust in collected interplanetary dust particles.” In Interstellar Dust (L.J. Allamandola, A.G.G.M. Tielens, Eds.), IAU Symp. No. 135, 403–413. Kluwer, Dordrecht.
Sargent, A.I. : 1989. “Molecular disks and their link to planetary systems.” In The Formation and Evolution of Planetary Systems (H.A. Weaver, L. Danly, Eds.), 111–129, Cambridge University Press.
Seab, C.G. : 1988. “Grain destruction and growth.” In Dust in the Universe (M.E. Bailey, D.A. Williams, Eds.), 303–326, Cambridge University Press.
Seab, C.G. and Shull, J.M. : 1986. “Shock processing of interstellar grains.” In Interrelations among Circumstellar, Interstellar, and Interplanetary Dust (J.A. Nuth III, R.E. Stencel, Eds.), NASA CP-2403, 37–53, NASA, Washington DC.
Sicardy, B. : 1994. “Small bodies around other stars.” This book.
Strom, K.M., Strom, S.E., Edwards, S., Cabrit, S. and Skrutskie, M.F. : 1989a. “Circumstellar material associated with solar-type pre-main-sequence stars : a possible constraint on the timescale for planet building.” Astron. J. ,97, 1451–1470.
Strom, S.E., Edwards, S. and Strom, K.M. : 1989b. “Constraints on the properties and environment of primitive stellar nebulae from the astrophysical record provided by young stellar objects.” In The Formation and Evolution of Planetary Systems (H.A. Weaver, L. Danly, Eds.), 91–109, Cambridge University Press.
Strom, S.E., Edwards, S. and Skrutski, M.F. : 1993. “Evolutionary timescales for circumstellar disks associated with intermediate-and solar-type stars.” In Protostars and Planets III (E.M. Levy, J.I. Lunine, Eds.), 837–866, University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Taylor, A.D., Baggaley, W.J., Bennett, R.G.T. and Steel, D.J. : 1994. “Radar measurements of very high velocity meteors with AMOR.” Planetary and Space Science ,in press.
Telesco, C.M., Becklin, E.E., Wolstencroft, R.D. and Decher, R. : 1988. “Resolution of the circumstellar disk of β Pictoris at 10 and 20 µm.” Nature ,335, 51–53.
Tielens, A.G.G.M. : 1989. “Dust in dense clouds.” In Interstellar Dust (L.J. Allamandola, A.G.G.M. Tielens, Eds.), IAU Symp. No. 135, 239–262. Kluwer, Dordrecht.
Tielens, A.G.G.M. : 1991. “Characteristics of interstellar and circumstellar dust.” In Origin and Evolution of Interplanetary Dust (A.C. Levasseur-Regourd, H. Hasegawa, Eds.), IAU Coll. No. 126, 405–412, Kluwer, Dordrecht.
Tremaine, S. : 1990. “Dark matter in the solar system.” In Baryonic Dark Matter (D. Lynden-Bell, G. Gilmore, Eds.), 37–65. Kluwer, Dordrecht.
Tscharnuter, W.M. and Boss, A.P. : 1993. “Formation of the protosolar nebula.” In Protostars and Planets III (E.H. Levy, J.I. Lunine, Eds.), 921–938, University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Van Dishoeck, E.F., Blake, G.A., Draine, B.T. and Lunine, J.I. : 1993. “The chemical evolution of protostellar and protoplanetary matter.” In Protostars and Planets III (E.H. Levy, J.I. Lunine, Eds.), 163–241, University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Völk, H.J., Jones, F.C., Morfill, G.E. and Röser, S. : 1980. “Collisions between grains in a turbulent gas.” Astron. Astrophys. ,85, 316–325.
Weidenschilling, S.J. : 1977. “The distribution of mass in the planetary system and solar nebula.” Astrophys. Space Sci. ,51, 151–158.
Weidenschilling, S.J. : 1987. “Accumulation of solid bodies in the solar nebula.” Gerlands. Beitr. Geophysik ,Leipzig ,96, 21–33.
Weidenschilling, S.J., Donn, B. and Meakin, P. : 1989. “The physics of planetesimal formation.” In The Formation and Evolution of Planetary Systems (H.A. Weaver, L. Danly, Eds.), 131–150, Cambridge University Press.
Weidenschilling, S.J. and Cuzzi, J.N. : 1993. “Growth of planets from planetesimals.” In Protostars and Planets III (E.H. Levy, J.I. Lunine, Eds.), 1031–1060, University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
Weintraub, D.A., Sandell, G. and Duncan, W.D. : 1989. “Submillimeter measurements of T Tauri and FU Orionis stars.” Astrophys. J. Lett. ,340, L69–L72.
Weissman, P.R. : 1990. “The cometary impactor flux at the Earth.” In Global Catastrophes in Earth History (V.L. Sharpton, P.D. Ward, Eds.), Geol. Soc. Amer. Spec. Pap. 247, 171–180.
Wetherill, G.W. : 1980. “Formation of the terrestrial planets.” Ann. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. ,18, 77–113.
Wetherill, G.W. : 1989. “The formation of the solar system : consensus, alternatives, and missing factors.” In The Formation and Evolution of Planetary Systems (H.A. Weaver, L. Danly, Eds.), 1–30, Cambridge University Press.
Wetherill, G.W. : 1990. “Formation of the Earth.” Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. ,18, 205–256.
Williams, I.P. : 1974. “Planetary formation.” In Exploration of the Planetary System (A. Woszczyk, C. Iwaniszewska, Eds.), IAU Symp. No. 65, 3–12, Reidel, Dordrecht.
Woolfson, M.M. : 1990. “The solar system -its origin and evolution.” Quart. J. Roy. Astron. Soc. ,34, 1–20.
Yamamoto, T. : 1991. “Chemical theories on the origin of comets.” In Comets in the Post-Halley Era (R.L. Newburn Jr., M. Neugebauer, J. Rahe, Eds.) IAU Coll. No. 116, Vol. 1, 361–376, Kluwer, Dordrecht.
Yamamoto, T. and Kozasa, T. : 1988. “The cometary nucleus as an aggregate of planetesimals.” Icarus ,75, 540–551.
Yamamoto, T., Mizutani, H. and Kadota, A. : 1993. “Are 1992 QB1 and 1993 FW remnant planetesimals?” Preprint ,submitted to Nature.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1994 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
About this paper
Cite this paper
Bailey, M.E. (1994). Formation of Outer Solar System Bodies: Comets and Planetesimals. In: Milani, A., Di Martino, M., Cellino, A. (eds) Asteroids, Comets, Meteors 1993. International Astronomical Union / Union Astronomique Internationale, vol 160. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-1148-5_30
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-1148-5_30
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-0-7923-2881-0
Online ISBN: 978-94-011-1148-5
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive