Skip to main content

The Production, Distribution, and Bacterial Enrichment of the Sea-Salt Aerosol

  • Chapter
Air-Sea Exchange of Gases and Particles

Part of the book series: NATO ASI Series ((ASIC,volume 108))

Abstract

It is often difficult to go back through time to find who did the pioneer work in a given area of research. This is not the case for the sea-salt aerosol. Throughout the early years of this century a few papers on the subject appeared in the literature, but they contained little quantitative information. But all this changed in the late 1940’s with the appearance of the first of several pioneer papers by Woodcock. His first paper (Woodcock and Gifford, 1949) described in detail the technique of obtaining the sea-salt particle size distribution. In a later paper Woodcock (1952) presented his ideas on the role of the giant sea-salt particles in the formation of raindrops, and in 1953 he published a paper that for the first time showed the salt particle distribution as a function of wind speed. Though numerous investigators have followed in Woodcock’s footsteps, his 1953 paper is still relevant and extensively quoted today.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 259.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 329.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 329.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Aitken, J., 1881: On dust, fogs, and clouds. Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, 30, 337–368.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bausum, H.T., S.A. Schaub, K.F. Kenyon, and N.J. Small, 1982: Comparison of coliphage and bacterial aerosols at a waste-water spray irrigation site. Appld. Environ. Microbiol., 43, 28–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baylor, E.R., M.B. Baylor, D.C. Blanchard, L.D. Syzdek, and C. Appel, 1977a: Virus transfer from surf to wind. Science, 198, 575–580.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baylor, E.R., V. Peters, and M.B. Baylor, 1977b: Water-to-air transfer of virus. Science, 197, 763–764.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beck, J.B., 1819: Observations on salt storms and the influence of salt and saline air upon animal and vegetable life. Amer. J. Sci., 1, 388–397.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berg, W.W., Jr., and J.W. Winchester, 1978: Aerosol chemistry of the marine atmosphere, in: Chemical Oceanography, vol. 7 (2nd edition), (J.P. Riley and R. Chester, eds.), 173–231, Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bezdek, H.F., and A.F. Carlucci, 1972: Surface concentration of marine bacteria. Limnol. Oceanogr., 17, 566–569.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bezdek, H.F., and A.F. Carlucci, 1974: Concentration and removal of liquid microlayers from a seawater surface by bursting bubbles. Limnol. Oceanogr., 19, 126–132.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blanchard, D.C., 1963: The electrification of the atmosphere by particles from bubbles in the sea. Prog. Oceanog., 1, 71–202.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blanchard, D.C., 1975: Bubble scavenging and the water-to-air transfer of organic material in the sea, in: Applied Chemistry at Protein Interfaces (R. Baier, ed.), Adv. Chem. Ser. 145, 360–387.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blanchard, D.C., 1978: Jet drop enrichment of bacteria, virus, and dissolved organic material. Pure and Appld. Geophys., 116, 302–308.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blanchard, D.C., and E.J. Hoffman, 1978: Control of jet-drop dynamics by organic material in seawater. J. Geophys. Res., 83, 6187–6191

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blanchard, D.C., and A.T. Spencer, 1964: Condensation nuclei and the crystallization of saline drops. J. Atmos. Sci., 21, 182–186.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blanchard, D.C., and L.D. Syzdek, 1970: Mechanism for the water-to-air transfer and concentration of bacteria. Science, 170, 626–628.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blanchard, D.C., and L.D. Syzdek, 1972a: Concentration of bacteria in jet drops from bursting bubbles. J. Geophys. Res., 77, 5087–5099.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blanchard, D.C., and L.D. Syzdek, 1972b: Variations in Aitken and giant nuclei in marine air. J. Phys. Oceanog., 2, 255–262.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blanchard, D.C., and L.D. Syzdek, 1974: Importance of bubble scavenging in the water-to-air transfer of organic material and bacteria. J. de Rech. Atmos., 8, 529–540.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blanchard, D.C., and L.D. Syzdek, 1975: Electrostatic collection of jet and film drops. Limnol. Oceanogr., 20, 762–774.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blanchard, D.C., and L.D. Syzdek, 1977: Production of air bubbles of a specified size. Chem. Engr. Sci., 32, 1109–1112.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blanchard, D.C., and L.D. Syzdek, 1978: Seven problems in bubble and jet drop researches. Limnol. Oceanogr., 23, 389–400.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blanchard, D.C., and L.D. Syzdek, 1982: Water-to-air transfer and enrichment of bacteria in drops from bursting bubbles. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 43, 1001–1005.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blanchard, D.C., and A.H. Woodcock, 1957: Bubble formation and modification in the sea and its meteorological significance. Tellus, 9, 145–158.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blanchard, D.C., and A.H. Woodcock, 1980: The production, concentration and vertical distribution of the sea-salt aerosol. Annals N.Y. Acad. Sci., 338, 330–347.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blanchard, D.C., L.D. Syzdek, and M.E. Weber, 1981: Bubble scavenging of bacteria in freshwater quickly produces bacterial enrichment in airborne drops. Limnol. Oceanogr., 26, 961–964.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brierly, W.B., 1970: Bibliography on atmospheric (cyclic) sea-salts. Tech. Rpt. 70-63-ES, U.S. Army Natick Laboratories, Natick, MA, 01760.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bunker, A.H., B. Haurwitz, J.S. Malkus, and H. Stommel, 1949: Vertical distribution of temperature and humidity over the Caribbean Sea. Pap. Phys. Oceanogr. and Meteor., 11 (1), 82 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burger, S.R., and D.C. Blanchard, 1982: Bubble lifetime at a water surface. Unpublished manuscript, available on request.

    Google Scholar 

  • Byers, H.R., J.R. Sievers, and B.J. Tufts, 1957: Distribution in the atmosphere of certain particles capable of serving as condensation nuclei, in: Artificial Stimulation of Rain, 47–72, Pergamon Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlucci, A.F., and P.M. Williams, 1965: Concentration of bacteria from sea water by bubble scavenging. J. Cons. Perm. Int. Explor. Mer., 30, 28–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chaen, M., 1973: Studies on the production of sea-salt particles on the sea surface. Memoirs of the Faculty of Fisheries, Kagoshima University, vol. 22(2), 49–107.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cipriano, R., 1979: Bubble and Aerosol Spectra Produced by a Laboratory Simulation of a Breaking Wave. Ph.D. Thesis, State University of New York at Albany.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cipriano, R.J., and D.C. Blanchard, 1981: Bubble and aerosol spectra produced by a laboratory ‘breaking wave.’ J. Geophys. Res., 86, 8085–8092.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cipriano, R.J., D.C. Blanchard, A.W. Hogan, and G.G. Lala, 1982: On the production of Aitken nuclei from breaking waves and their role in the atmosphere. Unpublished manuscript, reprints available.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clift, R., J.R. Grace, and M.E. Weber, 1978: Bubbles, Drops, and Particles. Academic Press, 380 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crow, S.A., D.G. Ahearn, W.L. Cook, and A.W. Bourquin, 1975: Densities of bacteria and fungi in coastal surface films as determined by a membrane-adsorption procedure. Limnol. and Oceanogr., 20, 644–646.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Darrozès, J.S., and P. Ligneul, 1982: The production of drops by the bursting of a bubble at an air liquid interface, in: Proc. 2nd Intl. Colloquium on Drops and Bubbles, JPL Pub. 82-7, 157–165, Jet Propulsion Lab., Calif. Inst. Tech., Pasadena, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Day, J.A., 1964: Production of droplets and salt nuclei by the bursting of air bubble films. Quart. J. Roy. Met. Soc., 90, 72–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dessens, H., 1946: Les noyaux de condensation de l’atmosphere. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, 223, 915–917.

    Google Scholar 

  • Detwiler, A., and D.C. Blanchard, 1978: Aging and bursting bubbles in trace-contaminated water. Chem. Engr. Sci., 33, 9–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dimmick, R.L., and A.B. Akers, 1969: An Introduction to Experimental Aerobiology. Wiley-Interscience, 494 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diminick, R.L., H. Wolochow, and M.A. Chatigny, 1979: Evidence for more than one division of bacteria within airborne particles. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 38, 642–643.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dondero, T.J., Jr., R.C. Rendtorff, G.F. Mallison, R.M. Weeks, J.S. Levy, E.W. Wong, and W. Schaffner, 1980: An outbreak of Legionnaires’ Disease associated with a contaminated air-conditioning cooling tower. N. Engl. J. Med., 302, 365–370.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duce, R.A., 1982: SEAREX: a multi-institutional investigation of the sea/air exchange of pollutants and natural substances, in: Marine Pollutant Transfer Processes (M. Waldichuk, G. Kullenberg, and N. Orren, eds.), Elsevier Pub. Co., in press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Duce, R.A., and E.J. Hoffman, 1976: Chemical fractionation at the air/sea interface. Annual Rev. Earth and Planetary Sciences, 4, 187–228.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duce, R.A., and A.H. Woodcock, 1971: Difference in chemical composition of atmospheric sea salt particles produced in the surf zone and on the open sea in Hawaii. Tellus, 23, 427–435.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eriksson, E., 1959: The yearly circulation of chloride and sulfur in nature; meteorological, geochemical and pedological implications. Part 1. Tellus, 11, 375–403.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eriksson, E., 1960: The yearly circulation of chloride and sulsur in nature; meteorological, geochemical and pedological implications, Part II. Tellus, 12, 63–109.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fliermans, C.B., W.B. Cherry, L.H. Orrison, and L. Thacker, 1979: Isolation of Legionella pneumophila from nonepidemic-related aquatic habitats. Appld. Environ. Microbiol., 37, 1239–1242.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fraizier, A., M. Masson, and J.C. Guary, 1977: Recherches preliminaires sur le role des aerosols dans le transport de certains radioelements du milieu mann au milieu terrestre. J. Rech. Atmos., 11, 49–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garrett, W.D., 1967a: Stabilization of air bubbles at the air-sea interface by surface-active material. Deep-Sea Research, 14, 661–672.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garrett, W.D., 1967b: The organic chemical composition of the ocean surface. Deep-Sea Research, 14, 221–227.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garrett, W.D., 1968: The influence of monomolecular surface films on the production of condensation nuclei from bubbled sea water. J. Geophys. Res., 73, 5145–5150.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garrett, W.D., 1981: Comment on “Organic particle and aggregate formation resulting from the dissolution of bubbles in seawater” (Johnson and Cooke). Limnol. and Oceanogr., 26, 989–992.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gaudin, A.M., N.S. Davis, and S.E. Bangs, 1962: Flotation of Escherichia coli with sodium chloride. Biotech. and Bioengr., 4, 211–222.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gerba, C.P., C. Wallis, and J.L. Melnick, 1975: Microbiological hazards of household toilets: droplet production and the fate of residual organisms. Appld. Microbiology, 30, 229–237.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gregory, P.H., 1961: The Microbiology of the Atmosphere. Interscience Publishers, Inc., New York, 251 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grieves, R.B., and S.L. Wang, 1967: Foam separation of bacteria with a cationic surfactant. Biotechnology and Bioengr., 9, 187–194.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gruft, H., J.O. Falkinham, III, and B.C. Parker, 1981: Recent experience in the epidemiology of disease caused by atypical mycobacteria. Rev. Infec. Dis., 3, 990–996.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gruft, H., J. Katz, and D.C. Blanchard, 1975: Postulated source of Mycobacterium intracellulare (Batiey) infection. Amer. J. Epidemiology, 102, 311–318.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hayami, S., and Y. Toba, 1958: Drop production by bursting of air bubbles on the sea surface (1) experiments at still sea water surface. J. Ocean. Soc. Japan, 14, 145–150.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hejkal, T.W., P.A. LaRock, and J.W. Winchester, 1980: Water-to-air fractionation of bacteria. Appld. Environ. Microbiology, 39, 335–338.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hickey, J.L.S, and P.C. Reist, 1975: Health significance of airborne microorganisms from wastewater treatment processes. Part II: Health significance and alternatives for action. J. Water Poll. Con. Fed., 47, 2758–2773.

    Google Scholar 

  • Higgins, F.B., Jr., 1964: Bacterial Aerosols from Bursting Bubbles. Ph.D. thesis, Georgia Institute of Technology.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hobbs, P.V., 1971: Simultaneous airborne measurements of cloud condensation nuclei and sodium-containing particles over the ocean. Quart. J. Roy. Met. Soc., 97, 263–271.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, G.L., 1971: Particulate Trace Metals in the Hawaiian Marine Atmosphere. Ph.D. thesis, University of Hawaii.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, E.J., G.L. Hoffman, and R.A. Duce, 1974: Chemical fractionation of alkali and alkaline earth metals in atmospheric particulate matter over the North Atlantic. J. de Rech. Atmos., 8, 675–688.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, E.J., and R.A. Duce, 1976: Factors influencing the organic carbon content of marine aerosols: a laboratory study. J. Geophys. Res., 81, 3667–3670.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, E. J., and R. A. Duce, 1977: Organic carbon in marine atmospheric particulate matter: concentration and particle size distribution. Geophys. Res. Letters, 4, 449–452.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Horrocks, W.H., 1907: Experiments made to determine the conditions under which “specifi” bacteria derived from sewage may be present in the air of ventilating pipes, drains, inspection chambers and sewers. Proc. Roy. Soc. London, 79 (Ser. B), 255–266.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hunter, K.A., and P.S. Liss, 1981: Organic sea surface films, in: Marine Organic Chemistry, Chapter 9, 259–298 (E.K. Duursma and R. Dawson], eds.), Elsevier Scientific Pub. Co., 522 pp

    Google Scholar 

  • Iribarne, J.V., D. Corr, B.Y.H. Liu, and D.Y.H. Pui, 1977: On the hypothesis of particle fragmentation during evaporation. Atmos. Environ., 11, 639–642.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobs, W.C., 1937: Preliminary report on a study of atmospheric chlorides. Mon. Wea. Rev., 65, 147–151.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, B., 1979: The Rate of Organic Particle Production Resulting from Bubble Dissolution in the Ocean. Ph.D. thesis, Dalhousie University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, B., and R.C. Cooke, 1979: Bubble populations and spectra in coastal waters; a photographic approach. J. Geophys. Res., 84, 3761–3766.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, B.D., and R.C. Cooke, 1980: Organic particle and aggregate formation resulting from the dissolution of bubbles in seawater. Limnol. and Oceanogr., 25, 653–661.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, B.D., and R.C. Cooke, 1981: Generation of stabilized microbubbles in seawater. Science, 213, 209–211.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Junge, C.E., 1963: Air Chemistry and Radioactivity, Academic Press, New York, 382 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kanwisher, J., 1963: On the exchange of gases between the atmosphere and the sea. Deep-Sea Res., 10, 195–207.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koga, N., 1981: Direct production of droplets from breaking wind-waves—its observation by a multicolored overlapping exposure photography technique. Tellus, 33, 552–563.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kolovayev, P.A., 1976: Investigation of the concentration and statistical size distribution of wind-produced bubbles in the near-surface ocean layer. Oceanology, 15, 659–661.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lai, R.J., and O.H. Shemdin, 1974: Laboratory study of the generation of spray over water. J. Geophys. Res., 79, 3055–3063.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ledbetter, J.O., L.M. Hauck, and R. Reynolds, 1973: Health hazards from wastewater treatment practices. Environmental Letters, 4, 225–232.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lodge, J.P., 1955: A study of sea-salt particles over Puerto Rico, J. Meteor., 12, 493–499.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lovett, R.F., 1975: The Occurrence of Airborne Sea-Salt and Its Meteorological Dependence. M.S. thesis, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lovett, R.F., 1978: Quantitative measurement of airborne sea-salt in the North Atlantic. Tellus, 30, 358–363.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacIntyre, F., 1968: Bubbles: a boundary-layer “microtome” for micron-thick samples of a liquid surface. J. Phys. Chem., 72, 589–592.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacIntyre, F., 1972: Flow patterns in breaking bubbles. J. Geophys. Res., 77, 5211–5228.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacIntyre, F., 1974: Chemical fractionation and sea-surface microlayer processes, in: The Sea (Marine Chemistry), vol. 5, 245–299 (E.D. Goldberg, ed.), John Wiley and Sons, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacIntyre, F., 1978: Additional problems in bubble and jet drop research. Limnol. and Oceanogr., 23, 571–573.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mason, B.J., 1971: The Physics of Clouds. Oxford University Press, 671 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • McDonald, R.L., C.K. Unni, and R. A. Duce, 1982: Estimation of atmospheric sea salt dry deposition: wind speed and particle size dependence. J. Geophys. Res., 87, 1246–1250.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Medwin, H., 1977: In situ acoustic measurements of microbubbles at sea. J. Geophys. Res., 82, 971–976.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Monahan, E.C., 1966: Sea Spray and Its Relationship to Low Elevation Wind Speed. Ph.D. thesis, Mass. Institute of Technology, 175 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Monahan, E.C., 1968: Sea spray as a function of low elevation wind speed. J. Geophys. Res., 73, 1127–1137.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Monahan, E.C., 1971: Oceanic whitecaps. J. Phys. Oceanog., 1, 139–144.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Monahan, E.C., C.W. Fairall, K.L. Davidson, and P.J. Boyle, 1982: Observed inter-relationships amongst 10 m-elevation winds, oceanic whitecaps, and marine aerosols. Unpublished ms.

    Google Scholar 

  • Monahan, E.C., and I. O’Muircheartaigh, 1980: Optimal power-law description of oceanic whitecap coverage dependence on wind speed. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 10, 2094–2099.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Monahan, E.C., and C.R. Zietlow, 1969: Laboratory comparisons of fresh-water and salt-water whitecaps. J. Geophys. Res., 74, 6961–6966.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Norkrans, B., and F. Sörensson, 1977: On the marine lipid surface microlayer—bacterial accumulation in model systems. Botanica Marina, 20, 473–478.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paterson, M.P., and K.T. Spillane, 1969: Surface films and the production of sea-salt aerosol. Quart. J. Roy. Met. Soc., 95, 526–534.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, E.M., C.S. Kiang, A.C. Delany, A.F. Wartburg, A.C.D. Leslie, and B.J. Huebert, 1980: Global measurements of aerosols in remote continental and marine regions: concentrations, size distributions, and optical properties. J. Geophys. Res., 85, 7361–7376.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Petrenchuk, O.P., 1980: On the budget of sea salts and sulfur in the atmosphere. J. Geophys. Res., 85, 7439–7444.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Podzimek, J., 1980: Advances in marine aerosol research. J. Rech. Atmos., 14, 35–61.

    Google Scholar 

  • Prospero, J.M., 1979: Mineral and sea salt aerosol concentrations in various ocean regions. J. Geophys. Res., 84, 725–730.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Quinn, J.A., R.A. Steinbrook, and J.L. Anderson, 1975: Breaking bubbles and the water-to-air transport of particulate matter. Chem. Engr. Sci., 30, 1177–1184.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Resch, F., and F. Avellan, 1982: Size distribution of oceanic air bubbles entrained in sea-water by wave-breaking, in: Proc. 2nd Intl. Colloquium on Drops and Bubbles, JPL Pub. 82-7, 182–186, Jet Propulsion Lab., Calif. Inst. Tech., Pasadena, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rizki, M.T.M., 1960: Factors influencing pigment production in a mutant strain of Serratia marcescens. J. Bact., 80, 305–310.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ross, D. B., and V. Cardone, 1974: Observations of oceanic whitecaps and their relation to remote measurements of surface wind speed. J. Geophys. Res., 79, 444–452.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rubin, A.J., 1968: Microflotation: coagulation and foam separation of Aerobacter aerogenes. Biotechnology and Bioengr., 10, 89–98.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ruskin, R.E., R.K. Jeck, F.K. Lepple, and W.A. Von Wald, 1978: Salt aerosol survey at gas turbine inlet aboard USS Spruance. NRL Rpt. 3804, Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, DC. 113 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Savoie, D.L., and J.M. Prospero, 1977: Aerosol concentration statistics for the northern tropical Atlantic. J. Geophys. Res., 82, 5954–5964.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schacher, G.E., K.L. Davidson, C.W. Fairall, and D.E. Spiel, 1981: Calculation of optical extinction from aerosol spectral data. Applied Optics, 20, 3951–3957.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schnell, R.C., 1977: Ice nuclei in seawater, fog water and marine air off the coast of Nova Scotia: summer 1975. J. Atmos. Sci., 34, 1299–1305.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schnell, R.C., and G. Vali, 1972: Atmospheric ice nuclei from decomposing vegetation. Nature, 236, 163–165.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schnell, R.C., and G. Vali, 1976: Biogenic ice nuclei. Part I: Terrestrial and marine sources. J. Atmos. Sci., 33, 1554–1564.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sieburth, J. McN., 1979: Sea Microbes. Oxford Univ. Press, 491 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sieburth, J. McN., P. Willis, K.M. Johnson, C.M. Burney, D.M. Lavoie, K.R. Hinga, D.A. Caron, F.W. French, III, P.W. Johnson, and P.G. Davis, 1976: Dissolved organic matter and heterotropic microneuston in the surface microlayers of the North Atlantic. Science, 194, 1415–1418.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sigerson, G., 1870: Micro-atmospheric researches. Proc. Roy. Irish Acad., 1 (2nd Series, Science), 13–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Soulage, G., 1957: Les noyaux de congelation de l’atmosphere. Ann. Geophys., 13, 103–134.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stuhlman, O., 1932: The mechanics of effervescence. Physics, 2, 457–466.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Syzdek, L.D., 1982: Concentrations of Serratia marcescens in the surface microlayer. Limnol. and Oceanogr., 27, 172–177.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tanaka, M., 1966: On the transport and distribution of giant sea-salt, particles over land [1] theoretical model. Special Contributions, Geophys. Inst., Kyoto Univ., No. 6, 47–57.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tedesco, R., and D.C. Blanchard, 1979: Dynamics of small bubble motion and bursting in freshwater. J. Rech. Atmos., 13, 215–226.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thorpe, S.A., 1982: On the clouds of bubbles formed by breaking wind-waves in deep water, and their role in air-sea gas transfer. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. London, A304, 155–210.

    Google Scholar 

  • Toba, Y., 1965a: On the giant sea-salt particles in the atmosphere. I. General features of the distribution. Tellus, 17, 131–145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Toba, Y., 1965b: On the giant sea-salt particles in the atmosphere. II. Theory of the vertical distribution in the 10-m layer over the ocean. Tellus, 17, 365–382.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Toba, Y., 1966: On the giant sea-salt particles in the atmosphere. III. An estimate of the production and distribution over the world ocean. Tellus, 18, 132–145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Toba, Y., and M. Chaen, 1973: Quantitative expression of the breaking of wind waves on the sea surface. Records of Oceanographic Works in Japan, 12, 1–11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Twomey, S., 1953: The identification of individual hygroscopic particles in the atmosphere by a phase-transition method. J. Appl. Phys., 24, 1099–1102.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Twomey, S., 1955: The distribution of sea-salt nuclei in air over land. J. Met., 12, 81–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Twomey, S., and K.N. McNaster, 1955: The production of condensation nuclei by crystallizing salt particles. Tellus, 7, 458–461.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vali, G., M. Christensen, R.W. Fresh, E.L. Galyan, L.R. Maki, and R.C. Schnell, 1976: Biogenic ice nuclei. Part II: Bacterial sources. J. Atmos. Sci., 33, 1565–1570.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wallace, G.T., Jr., and R.A. Duce, 1978: Transport of particulate organic matter by bubbles in marine waters. Limnol. and Oceanogr., 23, 1155–1167.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weber, N.E., 1981: Collision efficiencies for small particles with a spherical collector at intermediate Reynolds numbers. J. Separation Process Technology, 2, 29–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weber, N.E., D.C. Blanchard, and L.D. Syzdek, 1982: The mechanism of scavenging of water-borne bacteria by a rising bubble. Limnol. Oceanogr., in press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weisel, C.P., 1981: The Atmospheric Flux of Elements from the Ocean. Ph.D. thesis, the University of Rhode Island.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wendt, S.L., K.L. George, B.C. Parker, H. Gruft, and J.O. Falkinham, III, 1980: Epidemiology of infection by non-tuberculous mycobacteria III. Isolation of potentially pathogenic mycobacteria from aerosols. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis., 122, 259–263.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, R.P., 1973: Biosynthesis of prodigiosin, a secondary metabolite of Serratia marcescens. Appl. Microb., 25, 396–402.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodcock, A.H., 1948: Note concerning human respiratory irritation associated with high concentrations of plankton and mass mortality of marine organisms. J. Marine Res., 7, 56–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodcock, A.H., 1950: Sea salt in a tropical storm. J. Met., 7, 397–401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Woodcock, A.H., 1952: Atmospheric salt particles and raindrops. J. Net., 9, 200–212.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodcock, A.H., 1953: Salt nuclei in marine air as a function of altitude and wind force. J. Net., 10, 362–371.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodcock, A.H., 1955: Bursting bubbles and air pollution. Sewage and Industrial Wastes, 27, 1189–1192.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodcock, A.H., 1962: Solubles, in: The Sea, Physical Oceanography, vol. 1 (M.N. Hill, ed.), 305–312, Interscience, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodcock, A.H., 1972: Smaller salt particles in oceanic air and bubble behavior in the sea. J. Geophys. Res., 77, 5316–5321.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Woodcock, A.H., 1975: Anomalous orographic rains of Hawaii. Mon. Wea. Rev., 103, 334–343.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Woodcock, A.H., D.C. Blanchard, and C.G.H. Rooth, 1963: Salt-induced convection and clouds. J. Atmos. Sci., 20, 159–169.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Woodcock, A.H., and R.A. Duce, 1972: The “large” salt nuclei hypothesis of raindrop growth in Hawaii: further measurements and discussion. J. Rech. Atmos., 6, 639–649.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodcock, A.H., and M.M. Gifford, 1949: Sampling atmospheric sea-salt nuclei over the ocean. J. Marine Res., 8, 177–197.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wu, J., 1979: Oceanic whitecaps and sea state. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 9, 1064–1068.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, J., 1981: Bubble populations and spectra in near-surface ocean: summary and review of field measurements. J. Geophys. Res., 86, 457–463.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1983 D. Reidel Publishing Company

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Blanchard, D.C. (1983). The Production, Distribution, and Bacterial Enrichment of the Sea-Salt Aerosol. In: Liss, P.S., Slinn, W.G.N. (eds) Air-Sea Exchange of Gases and Particles. NATO ASI Series, vol 108. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-7169-1_7

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-7169-1_7

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht

  • Print ISBN: 978-94-009-7171-4

  • Online ISBN: 978-94-009-7169-1

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics