Abstract
In addition to the bacteria in the rumen there are many larger (5–250/mm long) organisms which at various times have been designated protozoa. Of these the ‘ovals’ (Quin’s and Eadie’s) are now known to be large bacteria (Orpin, 1976) and the ‘flagellates’ Neocallimastix frontalis, Piromonas communis and Sphaeromonas communis are the zoospores of phycomycete fungi (Orpin, 1977a, b). There are genuine flagellates in the rumen, e.g. Trichomonas spp., Monoceromonas sp. and Chilomastix sp., but almost nothing is known about their metabolism (Jensen and Hammon, 1964). The largest, most obvious and most important protozoa are the ciliates, of which there are two groups both in the subclass Trichostomatia. The so called ‘holotrich’ protozoa belong to the order Vestibuliferida and the entodiniomorphs to the order Entodiniomorphida, suborder Entodiniomorphina and family Ophryoscolecidae. As the properties and metabolism of these two protozoal groups are different, they will be considered separately below.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Abaza, M. A., Abou Akkada, A. R. and El Shazly, K. (1975). Effect of rumen protozoa on dietary lipid in sheep. J. Agric. Sci., 85, 135–43.
Abe, M. and Iriki, T. (1989). Mechanism whereby holotrich ciliates are retained in the reticulorumen of cattle. Br. J. Nutr., 62, 579–87.
Abe, M. and Kumeno, F. (1973). In vitro simulation of rumen fermentation: apparatus and effects of dilution rate and continuous dialysis on fermentation and protozoal population. J. Anim. Sci., 36, 941–8.
Abe, M. and Kurihara, Y. (1984). Long-term cultivation of certain rumen protozoa in a continuous fermentation system supplemented with sponge materials. J. Appl. Bacteriol., 56, 201–13.
Abe, M., Iriki, T., Tobe, N. and Shibui, H. (1981). Sequestration of holotrich protozoa in the reticulo-rumen of cattle. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 41, 758–65.
Abe, M., Suzuki, Y., Okano, H. and Iriki, T. (1983). Specific difference in fluctuation pattern of holotrich concentration in the rumen of cattle, goat and sheep. Jap. J. Zootech. Sci., 54, 457–62.
Abou Akkada, A. R. (1965). The metabolism of ciliate protozoa in relation to rumen function. In Physiology of Digestion in the Ruminant, ed. B. S. Dougherty, R. S. Allen, W. Burroughs et al. Butterworths. Washington pp. 335–45.
Abou Akkada, A. R. and Howard, B. H. (1961). The biochemistry of rumen protozoa. 4. Decomposition of pectic substances. Biochem. J., 78, 512–17.
Abou Akkada, A. R. and Howard, B. H. (1962). The biochemistry of rumen protozoa. 5. The nitrogen metabolism of Entodinium. Biochem. J., 83, 313–20.
Ankrah, P., Loerch, S. C. and Dehority, B. A. (1990). Sequestration, migration and lysis of protozoa in the rumen. J. Gen. Microbiol., 136, 1869–75.
Asada, T., Konno, T. and Katsuki, T. (1980). Studies on the contents of the rumen in Shiba goats. 1. Comparison of the contents of the rumen between Shiba goats and Saanen goats under the same feeding conditions. Bull. Nippon Vet. Zootech. Coll. 29, 69–73.
Awerinzew, S. and Mutafowa, R. (1914). Material zur Kenntnis der Infusorien aus dem Magen der Wiederkäuer. Arch. Protistenk., 38, 109–18.
Bailey, R. W. and Howard, B. H. (1963). The biochemistry of rumen protozoa. 6. The maltases of Dasytricha ruminantium, Epidinium ecaudatum (Crawley) and Entodinium caudatum. Biochem. J., 86, 446–52.
Bauchop, T. (1979). The rumen ciliate Epidinium in primary degradation of plant tissue. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 37, 1217–23.
Bauchop, T. (1980). Scanning electron microscopy in the study of microbial digestion of plant fragments in the gut. In Contemporary Microbial Ecology, ed. D. C. Ellwood, J. N. Hedger, M. J. Latham. Academic Press, New York, pp. 305–26.
Bauchop, T. (1989). In Roles of Protozoa and Fungi in Ruminant Digestion, ed. J. V. Nolan, R. A. Leng and D. I. Demeyer. Penambul Books, Armidale, Australia, pp. 83–96.
Bauchop, T. and Clarke, R. T. J. (1976). Attachment of the ciliate Epidinium Crawley to plant fragments in the sheep rumen. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 32, 417–22.
Becker, E. R. (1929). Methods for rendering the rumen and reticulum of ruminants free from their normal infusorian fauna. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 15, 435–40.
Becker, E. R. and Talbott, M. (1927). The protozoan fauna of the rumen and reticulum of American cattle. Iowa State Coll. J. Sci., 1, 345–71.
Becker, E. R., Schulz, J. A. and Emmerson, M. A. (1929). Experiments on the physiological relationships between the stomach infusoria of ruminants and their hosts, with a bibliography. Iowa State Coll. J. Sci., 4, 215–51.
Benyahya, P. M., Senaud, J. and Bohatier, J. (1992). Colonisation et dégradation de fragments de paille de blé par les ciliés du rumen Epidinium, Entodinium et Isotricha: étude en microscopie électronique. Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool., 13, 103–19.
Bergen, W. G., Purser, D. B. and Cline, J. H. (1968). Determination of limiting amino acids of rumen isolated microbial proteins fed to rats. J. Dairy Sci., 51, 1698–700.
Bhatia, B. L. (1936). The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma, ed. R. B. S. Sewell. Taylor and Francis, London, pp. 156–62.
Bird, S. H. (1989). In Roles of Protozoa and Fungi in Ruminant Digestion, ed. J. V. Nolan, R. A. Leng and D. I. Demeyer. Penambul Books, Armidale, Australia, pp. 233–46.
Bird, S. H. (1991). In Recent Advances on the Nutrition of Herbivores, ed. Y. W. Ho, H. K. Wong, N. Abdullah and Z. A. Tajuddin. Malaysian Society of Animal Production, Selangor, Malaysia, pp. 141–80.
Bird, S. H. and Leng, R. A. (1984). Absence of protozoa in the rumen and production of grazing sheep. Proc. Aust. Soc. Anim. Prod., 19, 654–9.
Bird, S. H. and Leng, R. A. (1985). Productivity responses to eliminating protozoa from the rumen of sheep. Rev. Rur. Sci., 6, 109–17.
Bird, S. H., Nolan, J. V. and Leng, R. A. (1990). InThe Rumen Ecosystem: The Microbial Metabolism and its Regulation, ed. S. Hoshino, R. Onodero, H. Minato and H. Itabashi. Japan Scientific Societies Press. Tokyo, pp. 151–60.
Bohatier, J., Senaud, J. and Benyahya, M. (1990). In situ degradation of cellulose fibres by the entodiniomorphid rumen ciliate Polyplastron multivesiculatum. Protoplasma 154, 122–31.
Boila, R. J. and Phillips, G. D. (1988). Effects of faunation, protein source and surgical modification of the intestinal tract upon flow of calcium, magnesium and phosphorus in the digestive tract of sheep. Can. J. Microbiol., 68, 853–63.
Bonhomme, A. (1988). Endo-l,4-ß-glucanase and endo-l,4-ß-xylanase of the ciliate Epidinium ecaudatum free of cellulolytic and hemicellulolytic bacteria.Jap. J. Vet. Sci., 50, 543–7.
Bonhomme, A. (1990). Rumen ciliates: their metabolism and relationships with bacteria and their hosts. Anim. Feed Sci. Technoi, 30, 203–66.
Bonhomme, A., Durand, M. and Quintana, C. (1982a). Influence du cobalt et de la vitamine B,2 sur la croissance et la survie des ciliés du rumen in vitro, en fonction de la population bactérienne.Reprod. Nutr. Develop., 22, 107–22.
Bonhomme, A., Fonty, G. and Senaud, J. (1982b). Essai d’obtention et de survie Entodiniomorphes du rumen en culture axeniques. Ann. Microbiol. (Inst. Pasteur), 133B, 335–41.
Bonhomme, A., Fonty, G. and Senaud, J. (1982c). Obtention de Polyplastron multivesiculatum (cilié Entodiniomorphe du rumen) en condition axenique. J. Protozool., 29, 231–3.
Bonhomme, A., Fonty, G., Foglietti, M. J. et al. (1986). Endo-l,4-ß-glucanase and ß-glucosidase of the ciliate Polyplastron multivesiculatum free of cellulolytic bacteria. Can. J. Microbiol., 32, 219–25.
Bonhomme-Florentin, A. (1990). InAnimal Nutrition and Transport Processes. 1. Nutrition in Wild and Domestic Animals, ed. J. Meilinger. Karger, Basel, pp. 254–68.
Bonhomme-Florentin, A. and Hempel-Zawitkowska, J. (1977). Comportment des populations ciliaires du rumen en culture dans le milieux saccharose et saccharose-uree. Ann. Nutr. Alim., 31, 331–48.
Bretschneider, L. N. and van Vorstenbosch, C. J. A. (1964). Das Vorkommen von intraplasmatischen und intranuklearen Mikroorganismen in eingen Pansenciliaten. Proc. Koninkliijke Nederlandse Akademie Wetenschappen, 67C, 313–19.
Broad, T. E. and Dawson, R. M. C. (1976). Role of choline in the nutrition of the rumen Protozoon Entodinium caudatum. J. Gen. Microbiol., 92, 391–7.
Broudiscou, L. and Lassalas, B. (1991). Linseed oil supplementation of the diet of sheep: effect on the in vitro fermentation of amino acids and proteins by rumen microorganisms. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol., 33, 161–71.
Broudiscou, L., Van Nevel, C. J. and Demeyer, D. I. (1990). Incorporation of soya oil hydrolysate in the diet of defaunated or refaunated sheep: effect on rumen fermentation in vitro. Arch. Anim. Nutr., Berlin, 40, 329–37.
Buckelew, T. P. and Kontir, D. M. (1977). The ultrastructure of two cow rumen ciliates, the holotrich, lsotricha spp. and the spirotrich Epidinium ecaudatum. Proc. Pennsylvania Acad. Sci., 51, 95.
Buisson, J. (1923). Sur quelques infusoires nouveaux ou peu connus parasites des manniferes. Ann. Parasitol., 1, 209–46.
Buisson, J. (1924). Quelques infusoires parasites d’antilopes africaines. Ann. Parasitol., 2, 155–60.
Burggraaf, W. and Leng, R. A. (1980). Antiprotozoal effects of surfactant detergents in the rumen of sheep. NZ J. Agric. Res., 23. 287–91.
Campbell, A. S. (1929). The structure of lsotricha prostoma. Arch. Protistenk., 66, 331–8.
Carnie, J. A. and Porteous, J. W. (1959). The kinetic properties of invertases obtained from different genera of sheep rumen holotrich protozoa. Biochem. J., 73, 47P-48P.
Chalupa, W. and Kutches, A. J. (1968). Biohydrogenation of linoleic-l-l4C acid by rumen protozoa. J. Anim. Sci., 27, 1502–8.
Chamberlain, D. G., Thomas, P. C. and Anderson, F. J. (1983). Volatile fatty acid proportions and lactic acid metabolism in the rumen in sheep and cattle receiving silage diets. J. Agric. Sci., 101, 47–58.
Chesters, J. K. (1968). Cell-free protein synthesis by rumen protozoa. J. Protozool., 15, 509–12.
Christie, A. O. and Porteous, J. W. (1957). An invertase from the holotrich protozoa of sheep rumen liquor. Biochem. J., 67, 19P.
Clarke, R. T. J. (1964). Ciliates of the rumen of domestic cattle (Bos taiirus L). NZ J. Agric. Res., 1, 248–57.
Clarke, R. T. J. (1965a). Diurnal variation in the numbers of rumen ciliate protozoa in cattle.NZ J. Agric. Res., 8, 1–9.
Clarke, R. T. J. (1965b). Quantitative studies of digestion in the reticulorumen. 3. Fluctuations in the numbers of rumen protozoa and their possible role in bloat. Proc. NZ Soc. Anim. Prod., 25, 96–103.
Clarke, R. T. J. (1965c). Role of rumen ciliates in bloat in cattle.Nature (Lond.), 205, 95–6.
Clarke, R. T. J. (1968). The ophryoscolecid ciliates of red deer (Cervus elaphus L) in New Zealand. NZ J. Sci., 11, 686–92.
Clarke, R. T. J. (1977). Protozoa in the rumen ecosystem. In Microbial Ecology of the Gut, ed. R. T. J. Clarke and T. Bauchop. Academic Press, London, pp. 251–75.
Clarke, R. T. J. and Hungate, R. E. (1966). Culture of the rumen holotrich ciliate Dasytricha ruminantium Schuberg. Appl. Microbiol., 14, 340–5.
Clarke, R. T. J. and Reid, C. S. W. (1974). Foamy bloat of cattle: a review.J. Dairy Sci., 57, 753–85.
Clarke, R. T. J., Reid, C. S. W. and Young, P. W. (1969). Bloat in cattle. 32. Attempts to prevent legume bloat in dry and lactating cows by partial or complete elimination of the rumen holotrich protozoa with dimetridazole. NZ J. Agric. Res., 12, 446–66.
Clayet, F., Senaud, J. and Bohatier, J. (1992). Chromatographic separation of some cell wall polysaccharide-degrading enzymes of the sheep rumen ciliate Epidinium caudatum. Ann. Zootech., 41, 81.
Coleman, G. S. (1960). The cultivation of sheep rumen oligotrich protozoa in vitro. J. Gen. Microbiol., 22, 555–63.
Coleman, G. S. (1962). The preparation and survival of almost bacteria-free suspensions of Entodinium caudatum. J. Gen. Microbiol., 28, 271–81.
Coleman, G. S. (1964a). The metabolism of Escherichia coli and other bacteria by Entodinium caudatum. J. Gen. Microbiol., 37, 209–23.
Coleman, G. S. (1964b). The metabolism of 14C-glycine and l4C-bicarbonate by washed suspensions of the rumen ciliate Entodinium caudatum. J. Gen. Microbiol., 35, 91–103.
Coleman, G. S. (1967a). The metabolism of the amino acids of Escherichia coli and other bacteria by the rumen ciliate Entodinium caudatum. J. Gen. Microbiol., 47, 449–64.
Coleman, G. S. (1967b). The metabolism of free amino acids by washed suspensions of the rumen ciliate Entodinium caudatum. J. Gen. Microbiol., 47, 433–47.
Coleman, G. S. (1968). The metabolism of bacterial nucleic acid and of free components of nucleic acid by the rumen ciliate Entodinium caudatum. J. Gen. Microbiol., 54, 83–96.
Coleman, G. S. (1969a). The cultivation of the rumen ciliate Entodinium simplex. J. Gen. Microbiol., 57, 81–90.
Coleman, G. S. (1969b). The metabolism of starch, maltose, glucose and some other sugars by the rumen ciliate Entodinium caudatum. J. Gen. Microbiol., 57, 303–32.
Coleman, G. S. (1972). The metabolism of starch, glucose, amino acids, purines, pyrimidines and bacteria by the rumen ciliate Entodinium simplex. J. Gen. Microbiol., 71, 117–31.
Coleman, G. S. (1975a). InDigestion and Metabolism in the Ruminant, ed. I. W. Mcdonald and A. C. I. Warner. University of New England Publishing Unit, Armidale, Australia, pp. 149–64.
Coleman, G. S. (1975b). In Symbiosis, ed. D. H. Jennings and D. L. Lee. Symp. Soc. Exp. Biol., 29, 533–58.
Coleman, G. S. (1978). The metabolism of cellulose, glucose and starch by the rumen ciliate protozoon Eudiplodinium maggii. J. Gen. Microbiol, 107, 359–66.
Coleman, G. S. (1979a). The role of rumen protozoa in the metabolism of ruminants given tropical feeds.Trop. Anim. Prod., 4, 199–213.
Coleman, G. S. (1979b). InBiochemistry and Physiology of Protozoa Vol. 2, ed. M. Levandowsky, S. H. Hutner and L. Provasoli. Academic Press, London, pp. 381–408.
Coleman, G. S. (1980). Rumen ciliate protozoa. Adv. Parasitol, 18, 121–73.
Coleman, G. S. (1981). Alternate metabolic pathways in protozoan energy metabolism (Workshop 1, EMOP3). Parasitology, 82, 5–6.
Coleman, G. S. (1983). Hydrolysis of fraction 1 leaf protein and casein by rumen entodiniomorphid protozoa. J. Appl Bacteriol, 55, 111–18.
Coleman, G. S. (1985a). The cellulase content of 15 species of entodiniomorphid protozoa, mixed bacteria and plant debris isolated from the ovine rumen.J. Agric. Sci., 104, 349–60.
Coleman, G. S. (1985b). Possible causes of the high death rate of ciliate protozoa in the rumen.J. Agric. Sci., 105, 39–43.
Coleman, G. S. (1986a). The metabolism of rumen ciliate protozoa.FEMS Microbiol Rev., 39, 321–44.
Coleman, G. S. (1986b). The amylase activity of 14 species of entodiniomorphid protozoa and the distribution of amylase in rumen digesta fractions of sheep containing no protozoa or one of seven different protozoal populations.J. Agric. Sci., 107, 709–21.
Coleman, G. S. (1986c). The distribution of carboxymethyl cellulase between fractions taken from the rumens of sheep containing no protozoa or one of five different protozoal populations.J. Agric. Sci., 106, 121–7.
Coleman, G. S. (1987a). Rumen entodiniomorphid protozoa. In In vitro Methods for Parasite Cultivation, ed. A. E. R. Taylor and J. R. Baker. Academic Press, London, pp. 29–51.
Coleman, G. S. (1987b). The rate of synthesis of amylopectin from cellulose and of the degradation of intracellular ‘starch’ by rumen ciliate protozoa. J. Protozool. Abstracts, 33, Abstract No. 101.
Coleman, G. S. (1988). The importance of rumen ciliate protozoa in the growth and metabolism of the host ruminant. Int. J. Anim. Sci., 3, 75–95.
Coleman, G. S. (1989). In The Role of Protozoa and Fungi in Ruminant Digestion, ed. J. V. Nolan, R. A. Leng and D. I. Demeyer. Penambul Books, Armidale, Australia, pp. 13–27.
Coleman, G. S. (1992). The rate of uptake and metabolism of starch grains and cellulose particles by Entodinium species, Eudiplodinium maggii, some other entodiniomorphid protozoa and natural protozoal populations taken from the ovine rumen. J. Appl. Bacteriol., 73, 507–13.
Coleman, G. S. and Hall, F. J. (1971). A study in the light and electron microscope of the extruded peristome and related structures of the rumen ciliate Entodinium caudatum. Tissue Cell, 3, 371–80.
Coleman, G. S. and Hall, F. J. (1972). Fine structural studies on the digestion of bacterial species in the rumen ciliate, Entodinium caudatum. Tissue Cell, 4, 37–48.
Coleman, G. S. and Hall, F. J. (1978). Digestion of Epidinium ecaudatum caudatum by the rumen ciliate Polyplastron multivesiculatum as shown by studies in the electron microscope. Soc. Gen. Microbiol. Q., 6, 29–30.
Coleman, G. S. and Hall, F. J. (1980). The digestion of grass particles by rumen cellulolytic protozoa. Soc. Gen. Microbiol. Q. 7, 87.
Coleman, G. S. and Hall, F. J. (1984). The uptake and utilization of Entodinium caudatum, bacteria, free amino acids and glucose by the rumen ciliate Entodinium bursa. J. Appl. Bacteriol., 56, 283–94.
Coleman, G. S. and Laurie, J. I. (1974a). The utilization of Bacillus megaterium and the release of a lytic enzyme by three Epidinium spp. isolated from the rumen. J. Gen. Microbiol., 85, 257–64.
Coleman, G. S. and Laurie, J. I. (1974b). The metabolism of starch, glucose, amino acids, purines, pyrimidines and bacteria by three Epidinium spp. isolated from the rumen.J. Gen. Microbiol., 85, 244–56.
Coleman, G. S. and Laurie, J. I. (1977). The metabolism of starch, glucose, amino acids, purines, pyrimidines and bacteria by the rumen ciliate Polyplastron multivesiculatum. J. Gen. Microbiol., 95, 29–37.
Coleman, G. S. and Reynolds, D. J. (1982a). The effect of sterols and haemin on the growth of the rumen ciliate Ophryoscolex caudatus and some other Entodiniomorphid protozoa.J. Appl. Bacteriol., 52, 129–34.
Coleman, G. S. and Reynolds, D. J. (1982b). The uptake of bacteria and amino acids by Ophryoscolex caudatus, Diploplastron affine and some other rumen Entodiniomorphid protozoa.J. Appl. Bacteriol, 52, 135–44.
Coleman, G. S. and Sandford, D. C. (1979a). The engulfment and digestion of mixed rumen bacteria and individual bacterial species by single and mixed species of rumen ciliate protozoa grown in vivo. J. Agric. Sci., 92, 729–42.
Coleman, G. S. and Sandford, D. C. (1979b). The uptake and utilization of bacteria, amino acids and nucleic acid components by the rumen ciliate Eudiplodinium maggii. J. Appl. Bacteriol., 47, 409–19.
Coleman, G. S., Davies, J. I. and Cash, M. A. (1972). The cultivation of the rumen ciliates Epidinium ecaudatum caudatum and Polyplastron multivesiculatum in vitro. J. Gen. Microbiol., 73, 509–21.
Coleman, G. S., Laurie, J. I. and Bailey, J. E. (1977). The cultivation of the rumen ciliate Entodinium bursa in the presence of Entodinium caudatum. J. Gen. Microbiol., 101, 253–8.
Coleman, G. S., Sandford, D. C. and Beahon, S. (1980). The degradation of polygalacturonic acid by rumen ciliate protozoa. J. Gen. Microbiol., 120, 295–300.
Constantinescu, E. and Dragos, N. (1984). Unele aspecte de structura electronomicroscopica a infurzorilor ruminali de la ovine. Bull. Inst. Agron. Cluj-Napoca Ser. Zooteh. Med. Vet., 33 17–18.
Counotte, G. H. M. (1979). Kinetic parameters of lactate dehydrogenases of some rumen bacterial species, the anaerobic rumen ciliate Isotricha prostoma and mixed rumen microorganisms. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek J. Microbiol. Serol., 45, 614.
Counotte, G. H. M., De Groot, M. and Prins, R. A. (1980). Kinetic parameters of lactate dehydrogenases of some rumen bacterial species, the anaerobic ciliate Isotricha prostoma and mixed rumen microorganisms. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek J. Microbiol. Serol., 46, 363–81.
Crawley, H. (1923). Evolution in the family Ophryoscolecidae. Proc. Acad. Natl. Sci. Philad., 75, 393–412.
Czerkawski, J. W. (1987). Reassessment of the contribution of protozoa to the microbial protein supply of the host ruminant animal. J. Theor. Biol., 126, 335–41.
Czerkawski, J. W. and Breckenridge, G. (1977). Design and development of a long-term rumen simulation technique (Rusitec). Br. J. Nutr., 38, 371–84.
Czerkawski, J. W. and Breckenridge, G. (1979). Experiments with the long-term rumen simulation technique (Rusitec); use of soluble food and an inert matrix. Br. J. Nutr., 42, 229–45.
Das Gupta, M. (1935). Preliminary observations on the protozoan fauna of the rumen of the Indian goat, Capra hircus Linn. Arch. Protistenk., 85, 153–72.
Dauvrin, T. and Thinés-Sempoux, D. (1989a). Purification and characterization of a heterogeneous glycosylated invertase from the rumen holotrich ciliate Isotricha prostoma. Biochem. J., 264, 721–7.
Dauvrin, T. and Thinés-Sempoux, D. (1989b). In Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of Anaerobic Protozoa, ed. D. Lloyd, G. H. Coombs and T. A. Paget. Harwood Academic Publishers, Chur, Switzerland, pp. 56–65.
Dayrell, M. de S., Ivan, M. and Hidiroglou, M. (1991). The effects of ruminal protozoa on selenium status in sheep. Can. J. Anim. Sci., 71, 1269–70.
Dehority, B. A. (1970). Occurrence of the ciliate protozoa Butschlia parva Schuberg in the rumen of the ovine. Appl. Microbiol., 19, 179–81.
Dehority, B. A. (1974). Rumen ciliate fauna of Alaskan moose (Alces americana), musk ox (Ovibos moschatus) and Dall mountain sheep (Ovis dalli). J. Protozool., 21, 26–32.
Dehority, B. A. (1975). Rumen ciliate protozoa of Alaskan reindeer and caribou (Rangifer tarandus L). In Proc. 1st Int. Reindeer and Caribou Symp., Fairbanks, Alaska (Biological papers of the University of Alaska, Special Report No. 1), pp. 228–40.
Dehority, B. A. (1978). Specificity of rumen ciliate protozoa in cattle and sheep.J. Protozool., 25, 509–13.
Dehority, B. A. (1979). Ciliate protozoa in the rumen of Brazilian water buffalo, Bubalus bubalis Linnaeus. J. Protozool., 26, 536–44.
Dehority, B. A. (1985). Rumen ciliates of Musk-oxen (Ovibos moschatus Z.) from the Canadian Arctic. J. Protozool., 32, 246–50.
Dehority, B. A. (1986a). Rumen ciliate fauna of some Brazilian cattle: occurrence of several ciliates new to the rumen, including the cycloposthid Parentodinium africanum. J. Protozool., 33, 416–21.
Dehority, B. A. (1986b). Protozoa of the digestive tract of herbivorous mammals. Insert Sci. Applic., 7, 279–96.
Dehority, B. A. (1986c). Microbes in the foregut of arctic ruminants. InControl of Digestion and Metabolism in Ruminants, ed. L. P. Milligan, W. L. Grovum and A. Dobson. Reston Books, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, pp. 307–25.
Dehority, B. A. (1993). Laboratory Manual for Classification and Morphology of Rumen Ciliate Protozoa. CRC Press, Boca Raton.
Dehority, B. A. (1995). Rumen ciliates of the pronghorn antelope (Antilocapra americana), mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and elk (Cervus canadensis) in Northwestern United States.Arch. Protistenkd., 46, 29–36.
Dehority, B. A. and Mattos, W. R. S. (1978). Diurnal changes and effect of ration on concentrations of the rumen ciliate. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 36, 953–8.
Dehority, B. A. and Purser, D. B. (1970). Factors affecting the establishment and numbers of holotrich protozoa in the ovine rumen. J. Anim. Sci., 30, 445–9.
Dehority, B. A. and Tirabasso, P. A. (1989). Factors affecting the migration and sequestration of rumen protozoa in the family Isotrichidae. J. Gen. Microbiol., 135, 539–48.
Dehority, B. A., Damron, W. S. and McLaren, J. B. (1983). Occurrence of the rumen ciliate Oligoisotricha bubali in domestic cattle (Bos taurus). Appl. Environ. Microbiol, 45, 1394–7.
Demeyer, D. I. (1981). Rumen microbes and digestion of plant cell walls. Agric. Environ., 6, 295–337.
Demeyer, D. I. (1989). In The Roles of Protozoa and Fungi in Ruminant Nutrition ed. J. V. Nolan, R. A. Leng and D. I. Demeyer. Penambul Books, Armidale, Australia, pp. 171–9.
Demeyer, D. I. and Van Nevel, C. (1986). Influence of substrate and microbial interaction on efficiency of rumen microbial growth. Reprod. Nutr. Develop., 26, 161–79.
Demeyer, D. I., Henderson, C. and Prins, R. A. (1978). Relative significance of exogenous and de novo synthesized fatty acids in the formation of rumen microbial lipids. Appl Environ. Microbiol, 35, 24–31.
Denholm, A. M. and Ling, J. R. (1984). In vitro metabolism of bacterial cell wall by rumen protozoa. Can J. Anim. Sci. 64 (Suppl.), 18–19.
Dijkstra, J. (1994). Simulation of the dynamics of protozoa in the rumen.Br. J. Nutr., 72, 679–99.
Dogiel, V. A. (1925a). Nouveux infusoires de la familie des Ophryoscolecides parasites d’antilopes africaines.Ann. Parasitol., 3, 116–42.
Dogiel, V. A. (1925b). Die Geschlechtsprozesse bei Infusorien (speziell bei den Ophryoscoleciden); neue Tatsachen und theoretische Erwägungen.Arch. Protistenk., 50, 283–442.
Dogiel, V. A. (1926). Une nouvelle espece du genre Blepharocorys, B. bovis n.sp. habitant l’estomac du boeuf. Ann. Parasitol, 4, 61–4.
Dogiel, V. A. (1927). Monographie der Familie Ophryoscolecidae. Arch. Protistenk., 59, 1–288.
Dogiel, V. A. (1928). La faune d’infusoires habitant l’estomac du buffle et du dromadaire. Ann. Parasitol, 6, 323–38.
Dogiel, V. A. (1934). Angaben über die Ophryoscolecidae des wildschafes aus kamtschatka, des Elches und des Yaks, nebst deren zoogeographischen Verwertung. Arch. Protistenk., 82, 290–7.
Dogiel, V. A. (1935). Eine notiz über die infusorien des renntiermagens. Trans. Arctic Inst. Leningrad, 24, 144–8.
Dogiel, V. A. (1947). The phylogeny of the stomach-infusorians of ruminants in the light of palaentological and parasitological data. Q. J. Microsc. Sci. (Sect. 3), 88, 337–43.
Dogiel, V. A. and Fedorowa, T. (1925). Ueber den Bau und die Funktion des inneren Skeletts des Ophryoscoleciden. Zool. Anz., 62, 97–107.
Eadie, J. M. (1957). The mid-winter rumen micro-fauna of the seaweed-eating sheep of North Ronaldshay. Proc. R. Soc. Edinburgh, B, 66, 276–87.
Eadie, J. M. (1962a). The development of rumen microbial populations in lambs and calves under various conditions of management.J. Gen. Microbiol, 29, 563–78.
Eadie, J. M. (1962b). Inter-relationships between certain rumen ciliate protozoa.J. Gen. Microbiol, 29, 579–88.
Eadie, J. M. and Gill, J. C. (1971). The effect of the absence of rumen ciliate protozoa on growing lambs fed on a roughage-concentrate diet. Br. J. Nutr., 26, 155–67.
Eadie, J. M. and Oxford, A. E. (1955). Factors involved in the production of a novel kind of derangement of storage mechanism in living holotrich ciliate protozoa from sheep rumen. J. Gen. Microbiol, 12, 298–310.
Eadie, J. M., Manners, D. J. and Stark, J. R. (1963). The molecular structure of a reserve polysaccharide from Entodinium caudatum. Biochem. J., 89, 91P.
Eisler, K. and Fleury, A. (1995). In Protistological Actualities (Proceedings of the Second European Congress of Protozoology), ed. G. Brugerolle and J.-P. Mignot, pp. 102–7.
Ellis, J. E., Williams, A. G. and Lloyd, D. (1989a). Oxygen consumption by ruminal microorganisms: protozoal and bacterial contributions.Appl Environ. Microbiol, 55, 2583–7.
Ellis, J. E., Lloyd, D. and Williams, A. G. (1989b). InBiochemistry and Molecular Biology of Anaerobic Protozoa, ed. D. Lloyd, G. H. Coombs and T. A. Paget. Harwood Academic Publishers, Chur, Switzerland, pp. 32–41.
Ellis, J. E., Hillman, K., Williams, A. G. and Lloyd, D. (1990a). In Microbiology and Biochemistry of Strict Anaerobes Involved in Interspecies Hydrogen Transfer, ed. J.-P. Belaich, M. Bruschi and J.-L. Garcia. Plenum Press, New York, pp. 373–6.
Ellis, J. E., Hillman, K., Williams, A. G. and Lloyd, D. (1990b). In Microbiology and Biochemistry of Strict Anaerobes Involved in Interspecies Hydrogen Transfer, ed. J.-P. Belaich, M. Bruschi and J.-L. Garcia. Plenum Press, New York, pp. 377–9.
Ellis, J. E., Mclntyre, P. S., Saleh, M. et al (1991a). Influence of C02 and low concentrations of 02 on fermentative metabolism of the rumen entodiniomorphid ciliate Polyplastron multivesiculatum.Appl. Environ. Microbiol.,57, 1400–7.
Ellis, J. E., Mclntyre, P. S., Saleh, M. et al. (1991b). The influence of ruminal concentrations of 02 and C02 on fermentative metabolism of the rumen entodiniomorphid ciliate Eudiplodinium magii. Curr. Microbiol.,23, 245–51.
Ellis, J. E., Mclntyre, P. S., Saleh, M. et al. (1991c). Influence of C02 and low concentrations of 02 on fermentative metabolism of the rumen ciliate Dasytricha ruminantium. J. Gen. Microbiol.,137, 1409–17.
Ellis, J. E., Lindmark, D. G., Williams, A. G. and Lloyd, D. (1994). Polypeptides of hydrogenosome-enriched fractions from rumen ciliate protozoa and trichomonads: immunological studies. FEMS Microbiol. Lett.,117, 211–16.
Eloff, A. K. and Van Hoven, W. (1980). Intestinal protozoa of the African elephant Loxodonta africana (Blumenbach). S. Afr. J. Zool., 15, 84–90.
Embley, T. M., Finlay, B. J., Dyal, P. L. et al. (1995). Multiple origins of anaerobic ciliates with hydrogenosomes within the radiation of aerobic ciliates. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B, 262, 87–93.
Emmanuel, B. (1974). On the origin of rumen protozoan fatty acids. Biochim. Biophys. Acta,337, 404–13.
Fay, J. P. and Ovejero, F. M. A. (1986). Effect of lactate on the in vitro digestion of Agropyron elongatum by rumen microorganisms. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol., 16, 161–7.
Fenchel, T. and Finlay, B. J. (1991). The biology of free-living anaerobic ciliates. Eur. J. Protistol., 26, 201–15.
Finlay, B. J., Esteban, G., Clarke, K. J. et al. (1994). Some rumen ciliates have endosymbiotic methanogens. FEMS Microbiol. Lett., 117, 157–62.
Fiorentini, A. (1889). Intorno ai Protisti Stomaco dei Bovini. frat. Fusi, Pavia, Italy.
Fonty, G. and Joblin, K. N. (1991). In Physiological Aspects of Digestion and Metabolism in Ruminants, ed. T. Tsuda, Y. Sasaki and R. Kawashima. Academic Press, New York, pp. 655–80.
Forsberg, C. W., Lovelock, L. K., Krumholtz, L. and Buchanan-Smith, J. G. (1984). Protease activities of rumen protozoa. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 47, 101–10.
Forsyth, G. and Hirst, E. L. (1953). Protozoal polysaccharides. Structure of the polysaccharide produced by the holotrich ciliates present in the sheep’s rumen.J. Chem. Soc., 2132–5.
Fuchigami, M., Senshu, T. and Horiguchi, M. (1989). A simple continuous culture system for rumen microbial digestion study and effects of defaunation and dilution rates. J. Dairy Sci., 72, 3070–8.
Fujita, J., Imai, S. and Ogimoto, K. (1979). Bacterial flora, protozoal fauna and volatile fatty acids in the rumen of the water buffalo in Taiwan. Jap. J. Zootech. Sci.,50, 850–4.
Furness, D. N. and Bulter, R. D. (1983). The cytology of sheep rumen ciliates. I. Ultrastructure of Epidinium caudatum Crawley. J. Protozool., 30, 676–87.
Furness, D. N. and Butler, R. D. (1985a). The cytology of sheep rumen ciliates. II. Ultrastructure of Eudiplodinium maggii. J. Protozool., 32, 205–14.
Furness, D. N. and Butler, R. D. (1985b). The cytology of sheep rumen ciliates. III. Ultrastructure of the genus Entodinium (Stein). J. Protozool., 32, 699–707.
Gaumont, R. and Grain, J. (1967). L’anaerobiose et les mitochondries chez les protozoaires du tube digestif. Ann. Univ. Arers Rheims, 5, 174–6.
Genskow, R. D., Lynch, D. L. and Hess, E. A. (1969). Evaluation of the contribution of forage material to the in vitro culture of Isotricha. Trans. Illinois State Acad. Sci., 62, 80–4.
Gerassimova, Z. P. (1981). The ultrastructure and systematic position of the rumen ciliate Isotricha intestinalis Stein. Tsitologiya, 23, 861–6.
Giesecke, D. (1970). Comparative microbiology of the alimentary tract. In Physiology of Digestion and Metabolism in the Ruminant, ed. A. T. Phillipson, E. F. Annison, D. G. Armstrong et al. Oriel Press, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, pp. 306–18.
Girard, V. and Hawke, J. C. (1978). The role of holotrichs in the metabolism of dietary linoleic acid in the rumen. Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 528, 17–27.
Göcmen, B. and Öktem, N. (1996). New rumen ciliates from Turkish domestic cattle (Bostaurus L.). The presence of Entodinium dalli Dehority 1974, with a new forma E. dalli f. rudidorsospinatum n.f. and comparisons with Entodinium williamsi n.sp. Eur. J. Protistol. (in press).
Grain, J. (1966). Etude cytologique de quelques ciliés holotrichs endocommensaux des ruminants et des equides (Parts 1 & 2). Protistologica, 2, 5–141.
Grain, J. and Senaud, J. (1984). New data on the degradation of fresh lucerne fragments by the rumen ciliate Epidinium ecaudatum: attachment, ingestion and digestion. Can. J. Anim. Sci., 64(Suppl.), 26.
Gupta, R., Chandhary, U. B. and Chahuan, T. R. (1993). Effect of protein supplementation and defaunation on the growth rate of young buffalo heifers. Ind. J. Anim. Sci., 63, 179–83.
Gutierrez, J. (1955). Experiments on the culture and physiology of holotrichs from the bovine rumen. Biochem. J., 60, 516–22.
Gutierrez, J. (1958). Observations on bacterial feeding by the rumen ciliate Isotricha prostoma. J. Protozool., 5, 122–6.
Gutierrez, J. and Hungate, R. E. (1957). Inter-relationship between certain bacteria and the rumen ciliate Dasytricha ruminantium. Science, 126, 511.
Gutierrez, J., Williams, P. P., Davis, R. E. and Warwick, E. J. (1962). Lipid metabolism of rumen ciliates and bacteria. 1. Uptake of fatty acids by Isotricha prostoma and Entodinium simplex. Appl. Microbiol., 10, 548–51.
Gyulai, F. and Coleman, G. S. (1991). Some enzymes of the starch degradation pathway in rumen protozoa with special reference to Ophryoscolex caudatus. Acta Protozool., 30, 33–7.
Gyulai, F., Marcin, A. and Sorokova, M. (1988). Cryopreservation of rumen protozoa. Cryobiology, 25, 568.
Han, S. S. (1984). Rumen ciliate protozoal fauna of the native cattle in Korea. Jap. J. Zootech. Sci., 55, 279–86.
Harmeyer, J. (1965). Fixation of carbon dioxide in amino acids by isolated rumen protozoa (Isotricha prostoma andI. intestinalis). Zentralbl. Veterinaermed., A12, 10–17.
Harmeyer, J. (1971a). Amino acid metabolism of isolated rumen protozoa (Isotricha prostoma and Isotricha intestinalis). 1. Catabolism of amino acids. Z. Tierphysiol. Tierernähr. Futtermittelkd, 28, 65–75.
Harmeyer, J. (1971b). Amino acid metabolism of isolated rumen protozoa (Isotricha prostoma and Isotricha intestinalis). 2. Excretion of amino acids. Z. Tierphysiol. Tierernähr. Futtermittelkd, 28, 75–85.
Harmeyer, J. and Hekimoglu, H. (1968). Acetatinkorporation durch isolierte pan-senprotozoenarten. Zentralbl. Veterinaermed., A15, 242–54.
Harrison, D. G., Beever, D. E. and Osbourn, D. F. (1979). The contribution of protozoa to the protein entering the duodenum of sheep. Br. J. Nutr., 41, 521–7.
Hart, F. J. (1992). Defaunation method. International Patent Application PCT/AU92/00410.
Heald, P. J. and Oxford, A. E. (1953). Fermentation of soluble sugars by anaerobic holotrich ciliate protozoa of the genera Isotricha andDasytricha. Biochem. J., 53, 506–12.
Heald, P. J., Oxford, A. E. and Sugden, B. (1952). A convenient method for preparing massive suspensions of virtually bacteria-free ciliate protozoa of the generaIsotricha and Dasytricha for manometric studies. Nature (Lond.), 169, 1055–6.
Hegarty, R. S., Nolan, J. V. and Leng, R. A. (1991). Sulphur availability and microbial fermentation in the fauna-free rumen. Arch. Anim. Nutr. Berlin, 41, 725–36.
Hidiroglu, M. and Jenkins, K. J. (1974). Influence de la défaunation sur l’utilisation de la sélénométhionine chez le mouton. Ann. Biol. Anim. Biochem. Biophys., 14, 157–65.
Hillman, K., Lloyd, D., Scott, R. I. and Williams, A. G. (1985a). The effects of oxygen on hydrogen production by rumen holotrich protozoa as determined by membrane-inlet mass spectrometry. In Microbial Gas Metabolism: Mechanistic, Metabolic and Biotechnological Aspects, ed. R. K. Poole and C. S. Dow. Academic Press, London, pp. 271–7.
Hillman, K., Lloyd, D. and Williams, A. G. (1985b). Use of a portable quadrupole mass spectrometer for the measurement of dissolved gas concentrations in ovine rumen liquor in situ. Curr. Microbiol., 12, 335–40.
Hillman, K., Lloyd, D. and Williams, A. G. (1988). Interactions between the methanogenMethanosarcina barkeri and rumen holotrich ciliate protozoa. Lett. Appl. Microbiol., 7, 49–53.
Hillman, K., Williams, A. G. and Lloyd, D. (1990). In Microbiology and Biochemistry of Strict Anaerobes Involved in Interspecies Hydrogen Transfer, ed. J.-P. Beiaich, M. Bruschi and J.-L. Garcia. Plenum Press, New York, pp. 395–7.
Hillman, K., Williams, A. G. and Lloyd, D. (1991a). Evaluation of matrices in the rumen simulation technique (RUSITEC) for the maintenance of ciliate protozoa. Lett. Appl Microbiol, 12, 129–32.
Hillman, K., Williams, A. G. and Lloyd, D. (1991b). The influence of headspace gas composition on the production of VFA by rumen ciliate protozoa. Lett. Appl Microbiol., 13,11–15.
Hillman, K., Williams, A. G. and Lloyd, D. (1995). Postprandial variations in endogenous metabolic activities of ovine rumen ciliate protozoa. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol., 52, 237–47.
Hino, T. (1981). Action of monensin on rumen protozoa. Jap. J. Zootech. Sci., 52, 171–9.
Hino, T. and Kametaka, M. (1977). Gnotobiotic and axenic cultures of a rumen protozoon, Entodinium caudatum. J. Gen. Appl. Microbiol, 23, 37–48.
Hino, T., Kametaka, M. and Kandatsu, M. (1973). The cultivation of rumen oligotrich protozoa. III. White clover factors which stimulate the growth of entodinia. J. Gen. Appl Microbiol, 19, 397–413.
Hino, T., Sugiyama, M. and Okumura, K. (1993). Maintenance of protozoa and methanogens and fibre digestion in rumen simulating continuous culture. J. Gen. Appl Microbiol, 39, 35–45.
Hirt, R. P., Wilkinson, M. and Embley, T. M. (1997). In Evolutionary Relationships Among Protozoa, ed. G. H. Coombs, K. Viekerman, M. A. Sleigh and A. Warren. Chapman & Hall, London (in press).
Honigberg, B. M., Balamuth, W., Bovee, E. C. et al(1964). A revised classification of the phylum protozoa. J. Protozool, 11, 7–20.
Howard, B. H. (1959a). The biochemistry of rumen protozoa. 1. Carbohydrate fermentation by Dasytricha and Isotricha. Biochem. J., 71, 671–5.
Howard, B. H. (1959b). The biochemistry of rumen protozoa. 2. Some carbohydrases in cell-free extracts of Dasytricha and Isotricha. Biochem. J., 71, 675–80.
Hsiung, T. S. (1930). Some new ciliates from the large intestine of the horse. Trans. Am. Microsc. Soc., 49, 34–41.
Hsiung, T. S. (1931). The protozoan fauna of the rumen of the Chinese sheep. Bull. Fan Memorial Inst. Biol, 2, 29–41.
Hsiung, T. S. (1932). A general survey of the protozoan fauna of the rumen of the Chinese cattle. Bull Fan Memorial Inst. Biol, 3, 87–104.
Hsu, J. T., Fahey, G. C., Merchen, N. R. et al. (1989). The efficacy of alkanate 3SL3, calcium peroxide and nystatin as defaunating agents in sheep. Nutr. Rep. Int., 39, 205–13.
Hsu, J. T., Fahey, G. C., Berger, L. L. et al(1991). Manipulation of nitrogen digestion by sheep using defaunation and various nitrogen supplementation regimens. J. Anim. Sci., 69, 1290–9.
Hukui, T. (1940). Untersuchungen über die drei neuen und viersehn bekannten eiliaten von Bos taurus var. domesticus Gmelin in West Japan. J. Sci. Hiroshima Univ., B7, 169–83.
Hukui, T. and Nisida, K. (1954). On Dasytricha hukuokaensis n.sp. Zool Mag., 63, 367–9.
Hungate, R. E. (1942). The culture ofEudiplodinium neglectum with experiments on the digestion of cellulose. Biol. Bull. Mar. Biol Lab. Woods Hole, 83, 303–19.
Hungate, R. E. (1943). Further experiments on cellulose digestion by protozoa in the rumen of cattle. Biol Bull Mar. Biol. Lab. Woods Hole, 84, 157–63.
Hungate, R. E. (1966). The Rumen and Its Microbes. Academic Press, New York.
Hungate, R. E. (1978). The rumen protozoa. In Parasitic Protozoa, Vol. 2, ed. J. P. Kreier. Academic Press. New York, pp. 655–95.
Imai, S. (1981). Four new rumen ciliates Entodinium ogimotoi sp. n., E. bubalum sp. n., and E. tsunodai sp. n. and Oligoisotricha bubali(Dogiel, 1928) n. combi. Jap. J. Vet. Sci., 43, 201–9.
Imai, S. (1984). New rumen ciliatesPolymorphella bocis sp. n. and Entodinium longinucleatum forms spinolobum f.n., from the zebu cattle in Thailand. Jap. J. Vet. Sci., 46, 391–5.
Imai, S. (1985). Rumen ciliate protozoal faunae of Bali cattle (Bos javanicus domesticus) and water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) in Indonesia with the description of a new species Entodinium javanicum sp. nov. Zool. Sci., 2, 591–600.
Imai, S. (1988). Ciliate protozoa in the rumen of Kenyan zebu cattle. J. Protozool., 35, 130–6.
Imai, S. and Ogimoto, K. (1978). Scanning electron and fluorescent microscopic studies on the attachment of spherical bacteria to ciliate protozoa in the ovine rumen. Jap. J. Vet. Sci., 40, 9–19.
Imai, S. and Ogimoto, K. (1983). Parabundleia ruminantium gen. n. sp. n., Diplodinium mahidoli sp. n. with two formae, and Entodinium parvum forma monospinosum forma n. from the zebu cattle (Bos indicus L., 1758) in Thailand. Jap. J. Vet. Sci., 45, 585–91.
Imai, S. and Ogimoto, K. (1984). Rumen ciliate protozoal fauna and bacterial flora of the zebu cattle (Bos indicus) and the water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) in Thailand. Jap. J. Zootech. Sci.,55, 576–83.
Imai, S. and Tsunoda, K. (1972). Scanning electron microscopic observations on the surface structures of ciliated protozoa in sheep rumen. Natl. Inst. Anim. Health Q., 12, 74–88.
Imai, S., Katsuno, M. and Ogimoto, K. (1978). Distribution of rumen ciliate protozoa in cattle, sheep and goat and experimental transfaunation of them. Jap. J. Zootech. Sci.,49, 494–505.
Imai, S., Abe, M. and Ogimoto, K. (1981a). Ciliate protozoa from the rumen of the Japanese serow, Capricornus crispus(Temminck). Jap. J. Vet. Sci., 43, 359–67.
Imai, S., Chang, C.-H., Wang, J.-S. et al. (1981b). Rumen ciliate protozoal fauna of the water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) in Taiwan. Bull. Nippon Vet. Zootech. Coll., 29, 77–81.
Imai, S., Ogimoto, K. and Fujita, J. (1981c). Rumen ciliate protozoal fauna of water buffalo, Bubalus bubalis(Linnaeus), in Okinawa, Japan. Bull. Nippon Vet. Zootech. Coll., 29, 82–5.
Imai, S., Shimizu, M., Kinoshita, M. et al. (1982). Rumen ciliate protozoal fauna and composition of the cattle in Japan. Bull. Nippon Vet. Zootech. Coll., 31, 70–4.
Imai, S., Kudo, H., Fukuta, K. et al. (1995).Isotricha jalaludinii N.Sp. found from the rumen of Lesser Mouse Deer,Tragulus javanicus, in Malaysia. J. Euk. Microbiol., 42, 75–7.
Ivan, M. (1989a). In The Roles of Protozoa and Fungi in Ruminant Digestion, ed. J. V. Nolan, R. A. Leng and D. I. Demeyer. Penambul Books, Armidale, Australia, pp. 199–210.
Ivan, M. (1989b). Effects of defaunation and type of dietary protein on gastric solubility and liver content of copper in sheep. J. Anim. Sci., 67, 3028–35.
Ivan, M. and Veira, D. (1982). Duodenal flow and soluble proportions of zinc, manganese, copper and iron in the ruminal fluid and duodenal digesta of faunated and defaunated sheep. Can. J. Anim. Sci., 62, 979–82.
Ivan, M., Veira, D. M. and Kelleher, C. A. (1986). The alleviation of chronic copper toxicity in sheep by ciliate protozoa. Br. J. Nutr., 55, 361–7.
Ivan, M., Hidiroglou, M. and Petit, V. (1991). Duodenal flow of nitrogen following protozoal inoculation of fauna-free sheep fed a diet supplemented with casein of soybean meal. Can. J. Anim. Sci., 71, 793–801.
Jameson, A. P. (1925a). A note on the ciliates from the stomach of the mouse deer (Tragulus meminna Milne-Edwards) with the description of Entodinium ovalis n. sp. Parasitol., 17, 406–9.
Jameson, A. P. (1925b). A new ciliate Charon ventriculi n.g., n. sp., from the stomach of ruminants. Parasitology, 17, 403–5.
Jensen, E. A. and Hammond, D. M. (1964). A morphological study of Trichomonads and related flagellates from the bovine digestive tract. J. Protozool., 11, 386–94.
Jirovec, O. (1933). Beobachtungen uber die fauna des rinderpansens. Z. Parasitenkunde, 5, 584–91.
Joblin, K. N. (1990). In Microbial and Plant Opportunities to Improve Lignocellulose Utilization by Ruminants, ed. D. E. Akin, L. G. Ljungdahl, J. R. Wilson and P. J. Harris. Elsevier, New York, pp. 311–24.
Jones, T. R. (1994). The structural and functional inter-relationships between bacteria and ciliates in the rumen. PhD Thesis, University of Manchester.
Jones, W. T. and Lyttleton, J. W. (1972). Bloat in cattle. 37. The foaming properties of bovine salivary secretions and protozoal proteins. NZ J. Agric. Res., 15, 506–11.
Jouany, J. P. (1989). In The Roles of Protozoa and Fungi in Ruminant Digestion, ed. J. V. Nolan, R. A. Leng and D. I. Demeyer. Penambul Books, Armidale, Australia, pp. 59–74.
Jouany, J. P. (1991). In Rumen Microbial Metabolism and Ruminant Digestion, ed. J. P. Jouany. INRA, Paris, pp. 239–61.
Jouany, J. P. (1994). Manipulation of microbial activity in the rumen. Arch. Anim. Nutr., Berlin, 46, 133–53.
Jouany, J. P. and Senaud, J. (1979). Defaunation du rumen de mouton. Ann. Biol. Anim. Biochim. Biophys., 19, 619–24.
Jouany, J. P. and Ushida, K. (1990). In The Rumen Ecosystem: The Microbial Metabolism and Its Regulation, ed. S. Hoshino, R. Onodera, H. Minato and H. Itabashi. Japan Scientific Societies Press, Tokyo, pp. 139–50.
Jouany, J. P., Demeyer, D. I. and Grain, J. (1988). Effect of defaunating the rumen. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol., 21, 229–65.
Jouany, J. P., Ivan, M., Papon, Y. and Lassalas, B. (1992). Effects of Isotricha, Eudiplodinium, Epidinium + Entodinium and a mixed population of rumen protozoa on the in vitro degradation of fish meal, soybean meal and casein. Can. J. Anim. Sci., 72, 871–80.
Jouany, J. P., Papon, Y. and Lassalas, B. (1993). Action of different genera of rumen protozoa on the in vitro degradation of three dietary proteins with different solubilities. Ann. Zootech., 42, 176.
Kandatsu, M. and Takahashi, N. (1956). Studies on reticulo-rumen digestion. Part 4. On the artificial culture of some Entodinia.III. J. Agric. Chem. Soc. Japan, 30, 96–102.
Katz, I. and Keeney, M. (1967). The lipids of some rumen holotrich protozoa. Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 144, 102–12.
Katz, I., Nagaraja, T. G. and Fina, L. R. (1986). Ruminal changes in monensin-and lasalocid-fed cattle grazing bloat-provocative alfalfa pasture. J. Anim. Sci., 63, 1246–57.
Kiessling, K.-H., Pettersson, H., Sandholm, K. and Olsen, M. (1984). Metabolism of aflatoxin, ochratoxin, zeralenone, and three trichothecenes by intact rumen fluid, rumen protozoa and rumen bacteria. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 47, 1070–3.
Kisidayova, S. (1995). Two-step freezing of the rumen ciliate protozoan Entodinium caudatum. J. Microbiol. Methods, 22, 185–92.
Kisidayova, S. (1996). The cryopreservation of some large entodiniomorphid ciliate protozoa taken from the rumen.Lett. Appl. Microbiol., 23, 389–92.
Kleynhans, C. J. and Van Hoven, W. (1976). Rumen protozoa of the giraffe with a description of two new species. E. Afr. Wildl. J., 14, 203–14.
Kofoid, C. A. and Christenson, J. F. (1933). Ciliates from Bos gaurus H. Smith. Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool, 39, 341–91.
Kofoid, C. A. and MacLennan, R. F. (1930). Ciliates from Bos indicus Linn. I. The genus Entodinium(Stein). Univ. Calif Publ. Zool, 33, 471–544.
Kofoid, C. A. and MacLennan, R. F. (1932). Ciliates from Bos indicus Linn. II. A revision of Diplodinium Schuberg. Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool.,37, 53–152.
Kofoid, C. A. and MacLennan, R. F. (1933). Ciliates from Bos indicus Linn. 3. Epidinium Crawley, Epiplastron gen. nov., andOphryoscolex Stein. Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool., 39, 1–33.
Kreuzer, M. and Kirchgessner, M. (1990). Faecal and urinary excretion of iron, copper, zinc and manganese in faunated and defaunated wethers fed semi-purified diets of different carbohydrate composition. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol, 28, 135–43.
Krumholz, L. R., Forsberg, C. W. and Veira, D. M. (1983). Association of methanogenic bacteria with rumen protozoa. Can. J. Microbiol, 29, 676–80.
Kubo, T., Kobayashi, K., Ishigami, H. et al. (1980). The cultivation of the rumen ciliate Dasytricha ruminantium. Bull Coll Agric. Utsunomiya Univ., 11, 9–16.
Latteur, B. (1966). Contribution a la systematique de la Familie des Ophyroscolescidae Stein. Ann. Soc. R. Zool. Belg.,96, 117–44.
Latteur, B. (1967). Helicozoster indicus n. gen., n. sp., ciliate holotriche du caecum de l’elephant des Indes. Acta Zool Pathol. Antverpiensia, 43, 93–106.
Latteur, B. (1968). Revision systematique de la Familie des Ophryoscolescidae Stein, 1898: sous-Famille des Entodiniinae Lubinsky, 1957, Genre Entodinium Stein, 1858.Ann. Soc. R. Zool, Belg., 98, 1–41.
Latteur, B. (1970). Revision systematique de la Familie des Ophryoscolescidae Stein, 1858: sous-Famille des Diplodiniinae Lubinsky, 1957, Genre Diplodinium(Schuberg, 1888) sensu novo. Ann. Soc. R. Zool., Belg., 100, 275–312.
Lee, J. J., Hutner, S. H. and Bovee, E. C. (1985). In An Illustrated Guide to the Protozoa. Society of Protozoologists, Lawrence, Kansas.
Leng, R. A. (1982). Dynamics of protozoa in the rumen of sheep. Br. J. Nutr., 48, 399–415.
Leng, R. A. (1989). In The Roles of Protozoa and Fungi in Ruminant Digestion, ed. J. V. Nolan, R. A. Leng and D. I. Demeyer. Penambul Books, Armidale, Australia, pp. 51–8.
Leng, R. A. (1990). Factors affecting the utilisation of ‘poor-quality’ forages by ruminants particularly under tropical conditions. Nutr. Res. Rev., 3, 277–303.
Leng, R. A. and Nolan, J. V. (1984). Nitrogen metabolism in the rumen. J. Dairy Sci., 67, 1072–89.
Leng, R. A., Gill, M., Kempton, T. J. et al. (1981). Kinetics of large ciliate protozoa in the rumen of cattle given sugar cane diets. Br. J. Nutr., 46, 371–84.
Leng, R. A., Dellow, D. and Waghorn, G. (1986). Dynamics of large ciliate protozoa in the rumen of cattle fed on diets of freshly cut grass. Br. J. Nutr., 56, 455–62.
Levine, N. D., Corliss, J. O., Cox, F. E. G. et al. (1980). A newly revised classification of the protozoa. J. Protozool., 27, 37–58.
Lloyd, D., Williams, J., Yarlett, N. and Williams, A. G. (1982). Oxygen affinities of the hydrogenosome-containing protozoa Tritriehomonas foetus and Dasytrieha ruminantium and two aerobic protozoa determined by bacterial bioluminescence. J. Gen. Microbiol., 128, 1019–22.
Lloyd, D., Hillman, K., Yarlett, N. and Williams, A. G. (1989). Hydrogen production by rumen holotrich protozoa: effects of oxygen and implications for metabolic control by in situ conditions. J. Protozool., 36, 205–13.
Lloyd, D., Ellis, J. E., Hillman, K. and Williams, A. G. (1992). Membrane inlet mass spectrometry: probing the rumen ecosystem.J Appl. Bacteriol., Symp. Suppl., 73,155S-63S.
Lloyd, D., Ralphs, J., Durrant, L. et al. (1994). Studies of the bacterial endosymbionts of ‘anaerobic protozoa’ using fluorescently-labelled rRNA-targetted oligonucleotide probes. Biochem. Soc. Trans., 22, 323S.
Lloyd, D., Williams, A. G., Amann, R. et al. (1996). Intracellular prokaryotes in rumen ciliate protozoa: detection by confocal laser scanning microscopy after in situ hybridization with fluorescent 16SrRNA probes. Eur. J. Protistol., 32(in press).
Lockwood, B. C., Coombs, G. H. and Williams, A. G. (1988). Proteinase activity in rumen ciliate protozoa.J. Gen. Microbiol, 134, 2605–14.
Lockwood, B. C., North, M. J., Williams, A. G. and Coombs, G. H. (1989). In Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of’Anaerobic’ Protozoa, ed. D. Lloyd, G. H. Coombs and T. A. Paget. Harwood Academic Publishers, Chur, Switzerland, pp. 66–77.
Lubinsky, G. (1955a). On some parasites of parasitic protozoa. I. Sphaerita hoari sp. n. A chytrid parasitizing Eremoplastron bovis. Can. J. Microbiol, 1, 440–50.
Lubinsky, G. (1955b). On some parasites of parasitic protozoa. II. Sagittospora cameroni gen. n., sp. n. A phycomycete parasitizing Ophryoscolecidae. Can. J. Microbiol, 1, 675–84.
Lubinsky, G. (1957). Studies on the evolution of the Ophryoscolecidae (Ciliata: Oligotricha). III. Phylogeny of the ophryoscolecidae based on their comparative morphology. Can. J. Zool, 35, 141–59.
Mackie, R. I., Gilchrist, F. M. C., Robberts, A. M. et al (1978). Microbiological and chemical changes in the rumen during the stepwise adaptation of sheep to high concentrate diets. J. Agric. Sci., 90, 241–54.
MacLennan, R. F. (1933). A pulsatory cycle of the contractile vacuole in the Ophryoscolecidae ciliates from the stomach of cattle.Univ. Calif. Publ Zool., 39, 205–49.
Mah, R. A. (1962). Experiments on the culture and physiology of Ophryoscolex purkynei. PhD thesis, University of California, Davis. Hungate, R. E. (1966). In The Rumen and Its Microbes. Academic Press, New York.
Mah, R. A. (1964). Factors influencing the in vitro culture of the rumen ciliate Ophryoscolex purkynei(Stein). J. Protozool, 11, 546–52.
Mangan, J. L. (1959). Bloat in cattle. 11. The foaming properties of proteins, saponins and rumen liquor. NZ J. Agric. Res., 2, 47–61.
Mangan, J. L. and West, J. (1977). Ruminal digestion of chloroplasts and the protection of protein by glutaraldehyde treatment. J. Agric. Sci., 89, 3–15.
Marcin, A., Gyulai, F., Varady, J. and Sorokova, M. (1989). A simple technique for cryopreservation of the rumen protozoan Entodinium simplex. Cryo-Letters, 10, 89–101.
Marcin, A., Kisidayova, S., Fejes, J. et al. (1992). A simple technique for cryopreservation of the rumen protozoan Entodinium caudatum. Cryo-Letters, 13, 175–82.
Martin, C., Williams, A. G. and Michalet-Doreau, B. (1994). Isolation and characteristics of the protozoal and bacterial fractions from bovine ruminal contents.J. Anim. Sci., 72, 2962–8.
Masson, H. A. and Ling, J. R. (1986). The in vitro metabolism of free and bacterially-bound 2,2’-diaminopimelic acid by rumen microorganisms. J. Appl. Bacteriol, 60, 341–9.
Masson, F. M. and Oxford, A. E. (1951). The action of the ciliates of the sheep’s rumen upon various water-soluble carbohydrates including polysaccharides. J. Gen. Microbiol., 5, 664–72.
Matsumoto, M., Kobayashi, T., Takenaka, A. and Itabashi, H. (1991). Defaunation effects of medium chain fatty acids and their derivatives on goat rumen protozoa.J. Gen. Appl. Microbiol., 37, 439–45.
McNaught, M. L., Owen, E. C., Henry, K. M. and Kon, S. K. (1954). The utilization of non-protein nitrogen in the bovine rumen. 8. The nutritive value of the proteins of preparations of dried rumen bacteria, rumen protozoa and bakers yeast for rats. Biochem. J., 56, 151–6.
Mertens, E., Van Schaftingen, E. and Muller, M. (1989). Presence of a fructose-2,6-bisphosphate insensitive pyrophosphate: fructose-6-phosphate phosphotransferase in the anaerobic protozoa Tritrichomonas foetus, Trichomonas vaginalis and Isotricha prostoma. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol., 37, 183–90.
Michalowski, T. (1975). Effect of different diets on the diurnal concentrations of ciliate protozoa in the rumen of water buffalo. J. Agric. Sci., 85, 145–50.
Michalowski, T. (1978). A simple system for continuous culture of rumen ciliates. Bull. Acad. Pol. Sci., Ser. Sci. Biol., 27, 581–3.
Michalowski, T. (1990). The synthesis and turnover of the cellular matter of ciliates in the rumen. Acta Protozool., 29, 47–72.
Michalowski, T. and Muszynski, P. (1978). Diurnal variations in number of ciliate protozoa in the rumen of sheep fed once and twice daily. J. Agric. Sci., 90, 1–5.
Michalowski, T., Harmeyer, J. and Breves, G. (1986). The passage of protozoa from the reticulo-rumen through the omasum of sheep. Br. J. Nutr., 56, 625–34.
Michalowski, T., Muszynski, P. and Landa, I. (1991). Factors influencing the growth of rumen ciliate Eudiplodinium maggii in vitro. Acta Protozool., 30, 115–20.
Minor, S., Macleod, N. A. and Preston, T. R. (1977). Effect of sampling by fistula or at slaughter on estimation of rumen protozoa. Trop. Anim. Prod., 2, 62–7.
Morgavi, D. P., Onodera, R. and Nagasawa, T. (1993). In vitro metabolism of chitin and protein from ruminal fungi by ruminal protozoa. Anim. Sci. Technol., 64, 584–92.
Morgavi, D. P., Sakurada, M., Tomita, Y. and Onodera, R. (1994a). Presence in rumen bacterial and protozoal populations of enzymes capable of degrading fungal cell walls. Microbiology, 140, 631–6.
Morgavi, D. P., Sakurada, M., Mizokami, M. et al. (1994b). Effects of ruminal protozoa on cellulose degradation and the growth of an aerobic fungus Piromyces sp. strain OTSI, in vitro. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 60, 3718–23.
Mould, D. L. and Thomas, G. J. (1958). The enzymic degradation of starch by holotrich protozoa from sheep rumen. Biochem. J., 69, 327–37.
Müller, M. (1993). The hydrogenosome. J. Gen. Microbiol., 139, 2879–89.
Murphy, M. R., Drone, P. E. and Woodford, S. T. (1985). Factors stimulating migration of holotrich protozoa into the rumen. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 49, 1329–31.
Nagasawa, T., Uchida, T. and Onodera, R. (1992). Exopeptidase activity of mixed rumen protozoa.Anim. Sci. Technol., 63, 481–7.
Nagasawa, T., Nagase, T. and Onodera, R. (1994). High molecular weight protease in rumen ciliate protozoa. Biosci. Biotech. Biochem., 58, 2020–3.
Nakamura, F. and Kurihara, Y. (1978). Maintenance of a certain rumen protozoal population in a continuous in vitro fermentation system. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 35, 500–6.
Navas-Camacho, A., Laredo, M. A., Cuesta, A. et al. (1994). Evaluation of tropical trees with high or medium saponin content as dietary alternative to eliminate ciliate protozoa from the rumen. Proc. Soc. Nutr. Physiol., 3, 204.
Neil, A. R., Grime, D. W., Snoswell, A. M. et al. (1979). The low availability of dietary choline for the nutrition of the sheep. Biochem. J., 180, 559–65.
Newbold, C. J. and Chamberlain, D. G. (1988). Lipids as rumen-defaunating agents. Proc. Nutr. Soc., 47, 154A.
Newbold, C. J. and Hillman, K. (1990). The effect of ciliate protozoa on the turnover of bacterial and fungal protein in the rumen of sheep.Lett. Appl. Microbiol., 11, 100–2.
Newbold, C. J., Chamberlain, D. G. and Williams, A. G. (1986). The effects of defaunation on the metabolism of lactic acid in the rumen. J. Sci. Food Agric., 37, 1083–90.
Newbold, C. J., Williams, A. G. and Chamberlain, D. G. (1987). The in vitro metabolism of DL-lactic acid by rumen microorganisms. J. Sci. Food Agric., 38, 9–18.
Newbold, C. J., El Hassan, S. M., Wallace, R. J. et al. (1994). Influence of African multipurpose trees on activity of rumen protozoa and bacteria in vitro. Anim. Prod., 58, 461.
Newbold, C. J., Lassalas, B. and Jouany, J. P. (1995). The importance of methanogens associated with ciliate protozoa in ruminai methane production in vitro. Lett. Appl. Microbiol., 21, 230–4.
Noirot-Timothée, C. (1958). L’ultrastructure de la limite ectoplasme-endoplasme et des fibres formant le caryophore chez les ciliés du genre lsotricha Stein (Holotriches Trichostomes). CR Acad. Sci., 247, 692–5.
Noirot-Timothée, C. (1960). Etude d’une familie des ciliés: les ‘Ophyroscolecidae’: structures et ultrastructures. Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool. Biol, Ser. 12, 2, 527–718.
Noirot-Timothée, C. (1963). Sur les ciliés du rumen de Giraffa camelopardalis L. CR Acad. Sci, 256, 5400–1.
Nolan, J. V., Leng, R. A. and Demeyer, D. I. (1989). The Roles of Protozoa and Fungi in Ruminant Digestion. Penambul Books, Armidale, Australia.
Ogimoto, K. and Imai, S. (1981). Atlas of Rumen Microbiology. Japan Scientific Societies Press, Tokyo.
Ogimoto, K., Imai, S., Asada, T. and Fujita, J. (1983). Bacterial flora, protozoal fauna and volatile fatty acids in the rumen of the water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) in tropical Asia. S. Afr. J. Anim. Sci., 13, 59–61.
Okuuchi, K., Nagasawa, T. and Onodera, R. (1992). Characteristics of tryptophanase (crude enzyme) of mixed rumen ciliate protozoa. Anim. Sci. Technol. Jap., 63, 1038–41.
Onodera, R. (1990). In The Rumen Ecosystem: The Microbial Metabolism and its Regulation, ed. S. Hoshino, R. Onodera, H. Minato and H. Itabashi. Japan Scientific Societies Press, Tokyo, pp. 33–42.
Onodera, R. and Henderson, C. (1980). Growth factors of bacterial origin for the culture of the rumen oligotrich protozoon,Entodinium caudatum. J. Appl. Bacteriol., 48, 125–34.
Onodera, R. and Kandatsu, M. (1970). Amino acids and protein metabolism of rumen ciliate protozoa. 4. Metabolism of casein. Jap. J. Zootech. Sci.,41, 307–13.
Orpin, C. G. (1976). The characterization of the rumen bacterium Eadie’s oval, Magnoovum gen. nov. eadii sp. nov. Arch. Microbiol., 111, 155–9.
Orpin, C. G. (1977a). The rumen flagellate Piromonas communis: its life-history and invasion of plant material in the rumen. J. Gen. Microbiol., 99, 107–17.
Orpin, C. G. (1977b). The occurrence of chitin in the cell walls of the rumen organisms Neocallimastix frontalis, Piromonas communis and Sphaeromonas communis. J. Gen. Microbiol., 99, 214–18.
Orpin, C. G. (1977c). Studies on the defaunation of the ovine rumen using dioctyl sodium sulphosuccinate. J. Appl. Bacteriol., 43, 309–18.
Orpin, C. G. (1984). The role of ciliate protozoa and fungi in the rumen digestion of plant cell walls. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol, 10, 121–43.
Orpin, C. G. (1985). Association of rumen ciliate populations with plant particles in vitro. Microbial Ecol, 11, 59–69.
Orpin, C. G. and Hall, F. J. (1977). Attachment of the rumen holotrich protozoon Isotricha intestinalis to grass particles. Proc. Soc. Gen. Microbiol, 4, 82–3.
Orpin, C. G. and Hall, F. J. (1983). Surface structures of the rumen holotrich protozoon Isotricha intestinalis with particular reference to the attachment zone. Curr. Microbiol, 8, 321–5.
Orpin, C. G. and Letcher, A. J. (1978). Some factors controlling the attachment of the rumen holotrich protozoa lsotricha intestinalis and I. prostoma to plant particles in vitro. J. Gen. Microbiol, 106, 33–40.
Orpin, C. G. and Mathiesen, S. D. (1986). Microcetus lappus gen. nov., sp. nov.: new species of ciliated protozoon from the bovine rumen. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 52, 527–30.
Owen, R. W. and Coleman, G. S. (1977). The uptake and utilization of bacteria, amino acids and carbohydrate by the rumen ciliate Entodinium longinucleatum in relation to the sources of amino acids for protein synthesis.J. Appl Bacteriol., 43, 67–74.
Oxford, A. E. (1951). The conversion of certain soluble sugars to a glucosan by holotrich ciliates in the rumen of sheep.J. Gen. Microbiol, 5, 83–90.
Oxford, A. E. (1955). The rumen ciliate protozoa: their chemical composition, metabolism, requirements for maintenance and culture and physiological significance for the host. Exp. Parasitol., 4, 569–605.
Paul, R. G. (1990). The digestion and metabolism of rumen ciliates. PhD Thesis, University of Manchester.
Paul, R. G., Butler, R. D. and Williams, A. G. (1989). Ultrastructure of the rumen ciliateDasytricha ruminantium. Eur. J. P rotistol., 24, 205–15.
Paul, R. G., Butler, R. D. and Williams, A. G. (1990a). Ultrastructure of Charonina ventriculi. J. Protozool., 37, 11 A.
Paul, R. G., Williams, A. G. and Butler, R. D. (1990b). Hydrogenosomes in the rumen entodiniomorphid ciliate Polyplastron multivesiculatum. J. Gen. Microbiol, 136, 1981–9.
Pearson, H. A. (1967). Rumen microorganisms in buffalo from southern Utah. Appl Microbiol., 15, 1450–1.
Potter, E. L. and Dehority, B. A. (1973). Effects of changes in feed level, starvation and level of feed after starvation upon the concentration of rumen protozoa in the ovine. Appl Microbiol, 26, 692–8.
Pounden, W. D. and Hibbs, J. W. (1950). The development of calves raised without protozoa and certain other characteristic rumen microorganisms. J. Dairy Sci., 33, 639–44.
Prins, R. A. (1991). In Rumen Microbial Metabolism and Ruminant Digestion, ed. J. P. Jouany. INRA, Paris, pp. 39–52.
Prins, R. A. and Prast, E. R. (1973). Oxidation of NADH in a coupled oxidase-peroxidase reaction and its significance for the fermentation in rumen protozoa of the genus Isotricha. J. Protozool, 20, 471–7.
Prins, R. A. and Van Golde, L. M. G. (1976). Entrance of glycerol into plasmalogens of some strictly anaerobic bacteria and protozoa. FEBS Lett., 63, 107–11.
Prins, R. A. and Van Hoven, W. (1977). Carbohydrate fermentation by the rumen ciliate Isotricha prostoma. Protistologica 13, 549–56.
Prins, R. A., van Rheenen, D. L. and van’t Klooster, A. T. (1983). Characterization of microbial proteolytic enzymes in the rumen. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek J. Microbiol Serol, 49, 585–95.
Punia, B. S. and Leibholz, J. (1994). Effect of level of intake of kikuyu (Pennisetum clandestinum) grass hay on the flow of protozoal nitrogen to the omasum of cattle. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol., 47, 77–87.
Punia, B. S., Leibholz, J. and Faichney, G. J. (1992). Rate of production of protozoa in the rumen and the flow of protozoal nitrogen to the duodenum in sheep and cattle given a pelleted diet of lucerne hay and barley. J. Agric. Sci., 118, 229–36.
Purser, D. B. and Tompkin, R. B. (1965). The influence of rumen fluid source upon viable bacterial counts and the cultivation of oligotrich and holotrich rumen protozoa. Life Sci., 4, 1493–501.
Purser, D. B. and Weiser, H. H. (1963). Influence of time of addition of antibiotic on the in vitro life of rumen holotrich protozoa. Nature (Lond.), 200, 290.
Quin, L. Y., Burroughs, W. and Christiansen, W. C. (1962). Continuous culture of ruminal microorganisms in chemically defined medium. 2. Culture medium studies. Appl Microbiol., 10, 583–92.
Railliet, A. (1890). Protozoaires. In Nouveau Dictionaire de Medicine, de Chirurgie et d’Hygiene Veterinaires, Vol. 18, ed. H. Bouley, A. Sansen, L. Trasbot and E. Nocard. Paris, pp. 288–321.
Romulo, B., Bird, S. H. and Leng, R. A. (1986). The effects of defaunation on digestibility and rumen fungi counts in sheep fed high fibre diets. Proc. Aust. Soc. Anim. Prod., 16, 327–30.
Romulo, B., Bird, S. H. and Leng, R. A. (1989). In The Roles of Protozoa and Fungi in Ruminant Digestion, ed. J. V. Nolan, R. A. Leng and D. I. Demeyer. Penambul Books, Annidale, Australia, pp. 285–8.
Schuberg, A. (1888). Die protozoen des wiederkauermagens. Zool. Jahrb. Abt. Syst. Oekol. Geograph. Tiere, 3, 365–418.
Scott, R. I., Yarlett, N., Hillman, K. et al. (1983). The presence of oxygen in rumen liquor and its effects on methanogenesis. J. Appi Bacteriol., 55, 143–9.
Senaud, J., Jouany, J.-P., Grain, J. and de Puytorac, P. (1973). Dynamique d’une population de Polyplastron multivesiculatum(Cilie, Oligotriche) en equilibre dans le rumen de mouton. CR Acad. Sci., Paris, 277, 197–200.
Senaud, J., Bohatier, J. and Grain, J. (1986). Comparisons du comportement alimentaire de 2 protozoaires ciliés du rumen, Epidinium caudatum, Polyplastron multivesiculatum; mécanismes d’ingestion et de digestion. Reprod. Nutr. Develop., 26(1B), 287–9.
Sharp, R., Hazlewood, G. P., Gilbert, H. J. and O’Donnell, A. G. (1994). Unmodified and recombinant strains ofLactobacillus plantarum are rapidly lost from the rumen by protozoal predation. J. Appi Bacteriol., 76, 110–17.
Small, E. B. and Lynn, D. H. (1985). In Illustrated Guide to the Protozoa, ed. S. H. Hutner, J. J. Lee and E. C. Bovee. Allen Press, Lawrence, USA, pp. 393–575.
Snyers, L., Hellings, P., Bovy-Kesler, C. and Thines-Sempoux, D. (1982). Occurrence of hydrogenosomes in the rumen ciliates Ophryoscolecidae. FEBS Lett., 137, 35–9.
Spisni, D., Frateschi, T. L., Mariani, A. P. et al. (1980). Miglioramento dei methodi di coltura in vitro dei protozoi del rumine e determinazione del loro contenuto di lisina. Nota 1. Prove in vitro sui protozoi del rumine con aggiunta ai normali terreni di coutura di alcuni substrati organici. Ann. Fac. Med. Vet. Pisa Univ. Studi Pisa, 33, 49–60.
Stein, F. (1858). Ueber mehere neue im Pansen der Wiederkäuer lebende Infusionsthiere. Abh. Kais. Bohm. Ges. Wiss., 10, 69–70.
Stern, M. D., Hoover, W. H. and Leonard, J. B. (1977). Ultrastructure of rumen holotrichs by electron microscopy. J. Dairy Sci., 60, 911–18.
Strand, E. (1928). Miscelanea nomenclatorica et paleontologica. I und II. Arch. Naturgesch., 92, 30–75.
Stumm, C. K., Gijzen, H. J. and Vogels, G. D. (1982). Association of methanogenic bacteria with ovine rumen ciliates. Br. J. Nutr., 47, 95–9.
Sugden, B. and Oxford, A. E. (1952). Some cultural studies with holotrich ciliate protozoa of the sheep’s rumen. J. Gen. Microbiol., 7, 145–53.
Syrjala, L., Saloniemi, H. and Laalhati, L. (1976). Composition and volume of the rumen microbiota of sheep fed grass silage with different sucrose, starch and cellulose supplements. J. Sci. Agric. Soc. Finland, 48, 138–53.
Teather, R. M. and Sauer, F. D. (1988). A naturally compartmented rumen simulation system for the continuous culture of rumen bacteria and protozoa. J. Dairy Sci., 71, 666–71.
Ten Kate, C. G. B. (1928). Das fibrillensystem der Isotrichen. Arch. Protistenk., 62, 328–54.
Thalib, A., Widlawati, Y., Hamid, H. et al. (1995). The effects of saponins from Sapindus rarak fruit on rumen microbes and host animal growth. Ann. Zootech., 44, 161.
Thines-Sempoux, D., Delfosse-Debusscher, J. and Latteur, B. (1980). Mechanism of cellulose digestion by the rumen ciliates. Arch. Int. Physiol. Biochim., 88, 102B-4B.
Thomas, G. J. (1960). Metabolism of the soluble carbohydrates of the grasses in the rumen of sheep. J. Agric. Sci., 54, 360–72.
Thurston, J. P. and Grain, J. (1971). Holotrich ciliates from the stomach of Hippopotamus amphibius with descriptions of two new genera and four new species. J. Proto zool., 18, 133–41.
Towne, G. and Nagaraja, T. G. (1989). Occurrence and diurnal population fluctuations of the ruminai protozoan Microcetus lappus. Appl Environ. Microbiol., 55, 91–4.
Towne, G., Nagaraja, T. G. and Kemp, K. K. (1988). Ruminai ciliated protozoa in bison. Appl Environ. Microbiol., 54, 2733–6.
Ushida, K., Jouany, J. P. and Demeyer, D. I. (1991). In Physiological Aspects of Digestion and Metabolism in Ruminants, Proceedings of the Seventh International Symposium on Ruminant Physiology, ed. T. Tsuda, Y. Sasaki and R. Kawashima. Academic Press, New York, pp. 625–54.
Valdez, R. E., Alvarez, F. J., Ferreiro, H. M. et al. (1977). Rumen function in cattle given sugar cane. Trop. Anim. Prod., 2, 260–72.
Van Hoven, W. (1983). Rumen ciliates with descriptions of two new species from the three African reedbuck species. J. Protozool., 30, 688–91.
Van Hoven, W. and Prins, R. A. (1977). Carbohydrate fermentation by the rumen ciliate Dasytricha ruminantium. Protistologica, 13, 599–606.
Van Hoven, W., Hamilton-Attwell, V. L. and Grobler, J. H. (1979). Rumen ciliate protozoa of the sable antelope Hippotragus niger. S. Afr. J. Zool., 14, 37–42.
Veira, D. M. (1986). The role of ciliate protozoa in nutrition of the ruminant. J. Anim. Sci., 63, 1547–60.
Vigues, B. and Groliere, C.-A. (1985). Evidence for Ca2+-binding protein associated to non-actin microfilamentous systems in two ciliated protozoans. Exp. Cell Res., 159, 366–76.
Vigues, B., Metenier, G. and Groliere, C.-A. (1984). Biochemical and immunological characterization of the microfibrillar ecto-endoplasmic boundary in the ciliateIsotricha prostoma. Biol. Cell, 51, 67–78.
Vigues, B., Metenier, G., Groliere, C.-A. et al. (1985). Biochemical study of proteins of cortical cytoskeleton in the ciliate Isotricha prostoma. J. Protozool., 32, 38–44.
Vogels, G. D., Hoppe, W. F. and Stumm, C. K. (1980). Association of methanogenic bacteria with rumen ciliates. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 40, 608–12.
Wakita, M. and Hoshino, S. (1980). Physiochemical properties of a reserve polysaccharide from sheep rumen ciliate genus Entodinium. Comp. Biochem. Physiol., 65B, 571–4.
Wallace, R. J., McKain, N. and Newbold, C. J. (1990). Metabolism of small peptides in rumen fluid. Accumulation of intermediates during hydrolysis of alanine oligomers and comparison of peptidolytic activities of bacteria and protozoa. J. Sci. Food Agric., 50, 191–9.
Wallace, R. J., Arthaud, L. and Newbold, C. J. (1994). Influence of Yucca shidigera extract on ruminal ammonia concentrations and ruminal microorganisms. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 60, 1762–7.
Wallis, O. C. and Coleman, G. S. (1967). Incorporation of 14C-labelled components of Escherichia coli and of amino acids by Isotricha intestinalis and Isotricha prostoma from the sheep rumen. J. Gen. Microbiol., 49, 315–23.
Warner, A. C. I. (1962). Some factors influencing the rumen microbial population. J. Gen. Microbiol., 28, 129–46.
Warner, A. C. I. (1966). Diurnal changes in the concentrations of microorganisms in the rumens of sheep fed limited diets once daily. J. Gen. Microbiol., 45, 213–35.
Weller, R. A. and Pilgrim, A. F. (1974). Passage of protozoa and volatile fatty acids from the rumen of a sheep and from a continuous in vitro fermentation system. Br. J. Nutr., 32, 341–51.
Westlake, K., Mackie, R. I. and Dutton, M. F. (1989). In vitro metabolism of mycotoxins by bacterial, protozoal and ovine ruminal fluid preparations. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol., 25, 169–78.
White, R. W. (1969). Viable bacteria inside the rumen ciliate Entodinium caudatum. J. Gen. Microbiol., 56, 403–8.
Whitelaw, F. G., Eadie, J. M., Bruce, L. A. and Shand, W. J. (1984). Methane formation in faunated and ciliate-free cattle and its relationship with rumen volatile fatty acid proportions. Br. J. Nutr., 52, 261–75.
Widyastuti, Y., Newbold, C. J., Stewart, C. S. and Orskov, E. R. (1995). Interactions between rumen anaerobic fungi and ciliate protozoa in the degradation of rice straw cell walls. Lett. Appl. Microbiol., 20, 61–4.
Williams, A. G. (1979a). The selectivity of carbohydrate assimilation by the anaerobic rumen ciliate Dasytricha ruminantium. J. Appl. Bacteriol., 47, 511–20.
Williams, A. G. (1979b). Exocellular carbohydrase formation by rumen holotrich ciliates. J. Protozool., 26, 665–72.
Williams, A. G. (1986). Rumen holotrich ciliate protozoa. Microbiol. Rev., 50, 25–49.
Williams, A. G. (1989). In The Roles of Protozoa and Fungi in Ruminant Digestion, ed. J. V. Nolan, R. A. Leng and D. I. Demeyer. Penambul Books, Armidale, Australia, pp. 97–126.
Williams, A. G. (1991). In Biochemical Protozoology, ed. G. H. Coombs and M. J. North. Taylor & Francis, London, pp. 61–79.
Williams, A. G. and Coleman, G. S. (1985). Hemicellulose-degrading enzymes in rumen ciliate protozoa. Curr. Microbiol., 12, 85–90.
Williams, A. G. and Coleman, G. S. (1992). The Rumen Protozoa. Springer-Verlag, New York.
Williams, A. G. and Harfoot, C. G. (1976). Factors affecting the uptake and metabolism of soluble carbohydrates by the rumen ciliateDasytricha ruminantium isolated from ovine rumen contents by filtration. J. Gen. Microbiol., 96, 125–36.
Williams, A. G. and Lloyd, D. (1993). Biological activities of symbiotic and parasitic protozoa and fungi in low-oxygen environments. Adv. Microbial. Ecol.,13, 211–62.
Williams, A. G. and Morrison, I. M. (1982). Studies on the production of saccharinic acids by the alkaline treatment of young grasses and their effectiveness as substrates for mixed rumen microorganisms in vitro. J. Sci. Food Agric., 33, 21–9.
Williams, A. G. and Strachan, N. H. (1984). The distribution of polysaccharide-degrading enzymes in the bovine rumen digesta ecosystem. Curr. Microbiol., 10, 215–20.
Williams, A. G. and Withers, S. E. (1991). Effect of ciliate protozoa on the activity of polysaccharide-degrading enzymes and fibre breakdown in the rumen ecosystem. J. Appl. Bacteriol., 70, 144–55.
Williams, A. G. and Withers, S. E. (1993). Changes in the rumen microbial population and its activities during the refaunation period after the reintroduction of ciliate protozoa into the rumen of defaunated sheep. Can. J. Microbiol., 39, 61–9.
Williams, A. G. and Yarlett, N. (1982). An improved technique for the isolation of holotrich protozoa from rumen contents by differential filtration with defined aperture textiles. J. Appl. Bacteriol., 52, 267–70.
Williams, A. G., Withers, S. E. and Coleman, G. S. (1984). Glycoside hydrolases of rumen bacteria and protozoa. Curr. Microbiol., 10, 287–94.
Williams, A. G., Ellis, A. B. and Coleman, G. S. (1986). Subcellular distribution of polysaccharide depolymerase and glycoside hydrolase enzymes in rumen ciliate protozoa. Curr. Microbiol., 13, 139–47.
Williams, A. G., Strachan, N. H. and Ellis, A. B. (1988). Factors affecting the xylanolytic enzyme activity of microbial populations recovered from the liquid and solid phases of the rumen ecosystem. In Perspectives in Microbial Ecology, ed. F. Megusar and M. Gantas. Slovene Society for Microbiology, Ljubljana, pp. 597–602.
Williams, A. G., Joblin, K. N., Butler, R. D., Fonty, G. and Bernalier, A. (1993). Interactions bactéries-prostistes dans le rumen. Ann. Biol., 32, 13–30.
Williams, A. G., Joblin, K. N., and Fonty, G. (1994). In Anaerobic Fungi: Biology Ecology and Function, ed. D. O. Mountfort and C. G. Orpin. Marcel Dekker Inc., New York, pp. 191–227.
Williams, P. P. and Dinusson, W. E. (1973). Amino acid and fatty acid composition of bovine ruminai bacteria and protozoa. J. Anim. Sci., 36, 151–5.
Williams, P. P., Gutierrez, J. and Davis, R. E. (1963). Lipid metabolism of rumen ciliates and bacteria. 2. Uptake of fatty acids and lipid analysis of Isotricha intestinalis and rumen bacteria with further information on Entodinium simplex. Appl. Microbiol., 11, 260–4.
Wolska, M. (1967a). Study on the family Blepharocorythidae Hsiung. 3. Raabena bella gen. n. sp. n. from the intestine of the Indian elephant. Acta Protozool., 4, 285–90.
Wolska, M. (1967b). Study on the family Blepharocorythidae Hsiung. 2. Charonina ventriculi(Jameson).Acta Protozool., 4, 279–83.
Wolska, M. (1968). Study on the family Blepharocorythidae Hsiung. 4. Pararaabena dentata gen. n. sp. n. from the intestine of Indian elephant. Acta Protozool., 5, 219–24.
Wright, A.-D. G., Dehority, B. A. and Lynn, D. H. (1997). Phylogeny of the rumen ciliates Entodinium, Epidinium and Polyplastron (Litostomatea: Entodinimorphida) inferred from small subunit ribosomal RNA sequences. J. Euk. Microbiol., 44, (in press).
Wright, D. E. and Curtis, M. W. (1976). Bloat in cattle. 42. The action of surface active chemicals on ciliated protozoa. NZ J. Agric. Res., 19, 19–23.
Yang, C.-M. J. and Varga, G. A. (1993). The effects of continuous ruminai dosing with dioctyl sodium sulphosuccinate on ruminai and metabolic characteristics of lactating Holstein cows. Br. J. Nutr., 69, 397–408.
Yarlett, N., Hann, A. C., Lloyd, D. and Williams, A. G. (1981). Hydrogenosomes in the rumen Protozoon Dasytricha ruminantium Schuberg. Biochem. J., 200, 365–72.
Yarlett, N., Lloyd, D. and Williams, A. G. (1982). Respiration of the rumen ciliate Dasytricha ruminantium Schuberg. Biochem. J., 206, 259–66.
Yarlett, N., Hann, A. C., Lloyd, D. and Williams, A. G. (1983a). Hydrogenosomes in a mixed isolate of Isotricha prostoma and Isotricha intestinalis from ovine rumen contents. Comp. Biochem. Physiol., 74B, 357–64.
Yarlett, N., Scott, R. I., Williams, A. G. and Lloyd, D. (1983b). A note on the effects of oxygen on hydrogen production by the rumen protozoonDasytricha ruminantium Schuberg . J. Appl. Bacteriol., 55, 359–61.
Yarlett, N., Coleman, G. S., Williams, A. G. and Lloyd, D. (1984). Hydrogenosomes in known species of rumen entodiniomorphid protozoa. FEMS Microbiol. Lett.,21, 15–19.
Yarlett, N., Lloyd, D. and Williams, A. G. (1985). Butyrate formation from glucose by the rumen protozoon Dasytricha ruminantium. Biochem. J., 228, 187–92.
Yoder, R. D., Trenkle, A. and Burroughs, W. (1966). Influence of rumen protozoa and bacteria upon cellulose digestion in vitro. J. Anim. Sci., 25, 609–12.
Yoshida, M. and Katsuki, T. (1980). Ingestion and digestion of carbohydrates by rumen ciliate protozoa in vitro. Bull. Nippon Vet. Zootech. Coll., 29, 63–7.
Yoshida, J., Nakamura, Y. and Nakamura, R. (1982). Effect of protozoal fraction and lactate on nitrate metabolism of microorganisms in sheep rumen. Japan. J. Zootech. Sci.,53,677–85.
Zenbayashi, M., Kawashima, R. and Uesaka, S. (1969). Studies on importance of trace elements in farm animal feeding 41. Effect of molybdenum on carbohydrate fermentation by rumen protozoa. Bull. Res. Inst. Food Sci. Kyoto Univ., 32, 32–8.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1997 Chapman & Hall
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Williams, A.G., Coleman, G.S. (1997). The rumen protozoa. In: Hobson, P.N., Stewart, C.S. (eds) The Rumen Microbial Ecosystem. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-1453-7_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-1453-7_3
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-94-010-7149-9
Online ISBN: 978-94-009-1453-7
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive