Abstract
This chapter examines the Italian system for the provision of social services, by looking at its defining features, its historical development, and those factors that are contributing to reshape it. Particular attention is devoted to the federalist reform and to the impact of EU internal market law.The Italian system has undergone several major changes over the last decade, tentatively moving toward more advanced models developed by other European States. After the Reform of Title V of the Constitution of 2001, the provision of social services is a matter pertaining to regions’ and local authorities’ exclusive competence. The integrated system introduced at the national level by Law no. 328 of 8 November 2000 still represents a common point of reference. The key features of this system are its universalistic nature, the strong presence of private actors, mainly belonging to the so-called ‘Third Sector,’ and its federalist structure. The federalization process can surely contribute to make the system more efficient, but, on the other hand, it might represent a major threat for the country’s shaky social cohesion. Central authorities would be called upon to act in order to avoid this risk, but so far, they have not made use of the powers conferred to them by the Constitution. The application of public procurement law, mainly of EU origin, is another factor that has contributed to unsettle the regulatory framework, especially with regard to the delivery of these services. Social services have been traditionally shielded against the application of these norms, by making reference to their function and to the nature of their providers, mainly nonprofit entities. Italian judges and, then, lawmakers have gradually changed their attitude, by adhering to the position of the CJEU. The process is still far from complete, as the transition toward a market-based approach is still troublesome.
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Notes
- 1.
Ferrera 1996, pp. 17–37.
- 2.
Esping-Andersen 1990.
- 3.
Gal 2010, pp. 283–296 proposes to extend the family in order to include some Mediterranean countries, such as Cyprus, Israel, Malta and Turkey.
- 4.
Ferrera 2006, pp. 42–50.
- 5.
Eurostat found that in 2008 average expenditure for social protection accounted for 26.4 % of GDP in the 27 EU countries (27.5 %) in the Euro area), while Italy was at 27.8 %.
- 6.
Rostagno and Utili 1998, p. 4, characterized the Italian welfare system as ‘the poverty of welfare’.
- 7.
Source OECD Social Expenditure Database.
- 8.
Ferrera 2006, pp. 45–47.
- 9.
The Italian Institute for Statistics (ISTAT) estimates that the shadow economy accounts for more than 17 % of the Italian GDP. However, these figures may well be too optimistic, failing to capture this phenomenon at its full extent.
- 10.
Ferrera 2006, p. 46.
- 11.
See infra, para 4.3.
- 12.
Esping-Andersen 1996, p. 67.
- 13.
- 14.
On this issue see Sect. 21.4.
- 15.
Royal Decree No. 30 of 17 March 1898.
- 16.
Law No. 350 of 17 July 1898.
- 17.
Conti and Silei 2005, p. 52.
- 18.
Ferrera 2006, p. 25.
- 19.
Conti and Silei 2005, p. 115.
- 20.
See the work of the Commission for the reform of the social security system, chaired by the socialdemocrat Ludovico D’Aragona, Ministero del Lavoro e della Previdenza Sociale, Relazione della Commissione per la riforma della previdenza sociale (Report of the Commission for the Reform of Social Security), II ed. Accresciuta degli Atti della Commissione medica, Rome, 1949, p. 125.
- 21.
Ferrera 1993, pp. 233–239.
- 22.
Agricultural laborers (1958), artisans (1959) and traders (1967).
- 23.
Article 26 of Law No. 153/1969 of 1 May 1969.
- 24.
Conti and Silei 2005, p. 179.
- 25.
Ferrera 2006, p. 27.
- 26.
With the so-called ‘riforma Dini’: Law No. 335 of 8 August 1995.
- 27.
Law No. 449 (‘Budget Law for the year 1998’) of 27 December 1997.
- 28.
At the beginning, the Minimum income was introduced in 39 municipalities and, in the year 2000, it was extended to other 267 municipalities.
- 29.
Law No. 284 of 28 August 1997.
- 30.
Ibid.
- 31.
d.P.R. No. 286 of 25 July 1998.
- 32.
Law No. 328 of 8 November 2000. For a more detailed analysis of the Law and of the system for the provision of social services see Sects. 4 and 5.
- 33.
The minimum social income, for instance, was canceled by the Budget Law for 2003.
- 34.
For instance, in 2008 the outlays for unemployment benefits registered a 110 % increase compared to the previous year. On the effects of the crisis on the welfare state worldwide see Busch 2010, pp. 7–11.
- 35.
Law Decree No. 138 of 13 August 2011, transposed and amended in Law No. 148 of 14 September 2011.
- 36.
Pizzuti 2009, pp. 215–220.
- 37.
Constitutional Court, Sentence No. 174/1981, in Giurisprudenza Costituzionale, 1981, 1527.
- 38.
Law No. 6792 of 17 July 1890.
- 39.
Constitutional Law No. 3 of 18 October 2001.
- 40.
See, for instance, Regional Law of Emilia Romagna No. 2 of 12 March 2003; Regional Law of Piemonte No. 1 of 8 January 2004.
- 41.
Albanese 2007b, pp. 1897–1900.
- 42.
Article 128 of the Legislative Decree No. 112/1998 of 31 March 1998.
- 43.
Commission, Communication from the Commission, Implementing the Community Lisbon Programme: Social Services of General Interest in the European Union, COM(2006) 177 final, 26 April 2006, p. 4.
- 44.
It must be recalled that also the Commission’s Communication of 2006 excluded health services from the SSGIs’ category. However, it is safe to assume that this exclusion occurred just for practical reason, i.e. to avoid any possible obstacle to the adoption of the Directive on patients’ rights in cross border health care (Directive 2011/24/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 9 March 2011 on the Application of Patients’ Rights in Cross-Border Healthcare, OJ 2011 L 88, pp. 45–65).
- 45.
Albanese 2007a, pp. 131–146.
- 46.
See Decree of the President of the Council of Ministries of 14 February 2001. The act offers some guidance as to the provision of those services having both a social and health care dimension.
- 47.
Catini 2010, p. 643.
- 48.
Article 2(1), makes clear that the integrated system is open to Italian and EU citizens, and regular resident foreigners and refugees (but only for emergency services). Many regions have decided to broaden the substantive scope of the integrated system, by opening it also to non accompanied minors, pregnant women (this is the case for Tuscany), and by removing the limits for refugees.
- 49.
See, for instance, Article 1(4) Regional Law of Umbria No. 26 of 28 December 2009; Article 4 Regional Law of Calabria No. 23 of 5 December 2003; Article 2 Regional Law of Piemonte No. 1 of 8 January 2004.
- 50.
Pizzolato 2007, p. 118.
- 51.
Mattioni 2007, p. 6.
- 52.
Giorgis 1999, pp. 13–26.
- 53.
- 54.
Pastori 2007, p. 75.
- 55.
La Porta 2007, p. 168.
- 56.
For instance, Article 2(2) Regional Law of Piemonte No. 1 of 8 January 2004.
- 57.
Rescigno 2002, p. 4.
- 58.
Regional Law of Lombardia No. 39 of 11 April 1980.
- 59.
CJEU, Case C-70/95 Sodemare [1997] ECR I-3395, para 29.
- 60.
Wendt and Gideon 2011, p. 255.
- 61.
Regulated by the Law No. 118 of 13 June 2005 and the Legislative Decree No. 155 of 24 March 2006.
- 62.
In particular, at regional level there is the definition of the overall targets to be achieved, the criteria for accreditation and authorization of private partners, the monitoring and evaluation criteria, while at the zonal (i.e. holding together a number of municipalities) level there is definition of more specific targets and of the tools to achieve them. The degree of the participation of third sector organizations varies according to the region considered, on this see Albanese 2007a, pp. 163–177.
- 63.
Albanese 2007a, pp. 178–195.
- 64.
Saraceno 2005, pp. 8–10.
- 65.
There is the risk that the austerity measures adopted by the government to cope with the economic crisis that hit the country since 2008 might leave local authorities without the necessary resources to effectively exercise their competences in the social field. Over the period 2008–2011 the funds provided by the central government to the regions for the organization and delivery of social services have gone from 1,231 millions of Euros to 178 million of Euros. The situation is bound to further deteriorate after the austerity measures adopted by the Italian Government in August 2011. The Law Decree No. 138 of 13 August 2011 impose a reduction of 104,75 billions of Euros for the years 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014 on Regions’, Provinces’, and Municipalities’ funding.
- 66.
Other forms of interference can come from the exercise by the central government of cross-cutting competences, such as in the fiscal and competition fields.
- 67.
The Budget Law for 2011 that left almost untouched the resources for cash transfers, while further reducing those for the provision of social services. The Fund for social policies will have Euros 275 millions, while they were Euros 929 million in 2008; the Fund for family policies was lowered to Euros 52 million from Euros 346 million in 2008. Some funds, such as that for non self-sufficient people or for childhood, were reduced to zero (Pasquinelli 2011).
- 68.
A similar provision could already be found in Article 9 of the Law No. 328/2000.
- 69.
- 70.
- 71.
Losana 2010, pp. 122–123.
- 72.
The essential levels of assistance in the healthcare sector had been first defined by the Decree of the President of the Council of the Ministries of 29 November 2001, later modified by the Decree of the President of the Council of the Ministries of 23 April 2008.
- 73.
Molaschi 2008, pp. 186–191.
- 74.
The need for the adoption of a legislative act has been repeatedly stressed by the Constitutional Court (see Sentence of 28 June 2006, No. 248). See also Satta 2007, pp. 506–512.
- 75.
Rodotà 1999, pp. 118–120.
- 76.
On this concept see CESCR, The Nature of States Parties Obligations (Article 2(1)), General Comment 3, E/1991/23, 1990, para 10.
- 77.
Albanese 2007a, pp. 72–76.
- 78.
Molaschi 2008, pp. 254–257.
- 79.
- 80.
Da Roit 2008, pp. 31–36.
- 81.
A body composed of regions’ and autonomous provinces’ representatives and that serves as a liaisons with the central Government.
- 82.
Conferenza dei Presidenti delle Regioni e delle Province autonome 2003, p. 28.
- 83.
Da Roit 2008, p. 17.
- 84.
Their presence is getting stronger in a period of dire economic crisis such as the present one. In many instances, third sector organizations are forced to intervene in order to compensate the increasing inability of public authorities to provide even basic social services.
- 85.
Although initially used in a negative sense—i.e. to describe a phenomenon that was perceived as having only a disruptive effect on national welfare states—here the term has a neutral value. Indeed, it is used to describe a situation in which ‘economic’ rules have gradually crept into a sector that has been traditionally considered as being excluded from their scope of application. It is a phenomenon that cannot be taken as having only negative effects upon the welfare state, since, if duly regulated, it might well contribute to its modernization.
- 86.
Albanese 2007a, pp. 137–146.
- 87.
In some cases, municipalities may decide to provide the services directly.
- 88.
See, for instance, Article 35 Regional Law of Umbria No. 26 of 28 December 2009; Article 30 Regional Law of Piemonte No. 1 of 8 January 2004.
- 89.
Baroni 2007, p. 709.
- 90.
This is not the case for services directly provided by municipalities.
- 91.
This notwithstanding, the Trentino-Alto Adige’s legislation makes no difference between authorization and accreditation.
- 92.
Albanese 2007a, pp. 204–210.
- 93.
For a complete overview, see Ministero del Lavoro e delle Politiche Sociali (2006) I modelli di affidamento dei servizi sociali e l’attuazione dei sistemi di accreditamento (Models for the Entrustment of Social Services and the Implementation of Accreditation Systems), 2006, pp. 11–12. Available at: http://db.formez.it/fontinor.nsf/b966f27599017389c1256c5200300e09/96CAD558F882CC3CC125711C0048458C/$file/Modelli%20di%20affidamento.pdf (last accessed on 11 June 2012).
- 94.
This is the case of Valle d’Aosta and Calabria.
- 95.
Abruzzo, Liguria, Lombardia, Molise, Piemonte and Umbria.
- 96.
Emilia-Romagna, Puglia, Toscana and Veneto.
- 97.
See, for instance, Calabria, Marche and Veneto.
- 98.
This is what happens, for instance, in Abruzzo, Marche, Calabria and Piemonte.
- 99.
TAR Umbria, 24 October 2003, No. 821; TAR Molise, 10 March 2004, No. 262 or TAR Campania, Napoli, sez. I, 30 April 2003, p. 4203.
- 100.
CJEU, Case C-119/06 Commission v. Italy [2007] ECR I-168.
- 101.
Converted into Law No. 326 of 24 November 2003.
- 102.
Bonura 2010, p. 516.
- 103.
Although this is a competition law’s notion, the CJEU is increasingly making reference to it in order to determine the applicability of public procurement norms. On this evolution see Caranta 2008, p. 301.
- 104.
Consiglio di Stato, sezione V, 27 August 2009, No. 5097.
- 105.
On the risks of the ‘potential market’ approach see Conclusions of the AG Poiares Maduro in his Opinion of 10 November 2005 in CJEU, Case C-205/03 FENIN [2006] ECR I-6295, para 12.
- 106.
Driguez 2006, p. 250.
- 107.
See the so-called ‘social solidarity rulings’ (Hervey 2000, p. 31) such as, inter alia, CJEU, Case C-218/00 Cisal di Battistello Venanzio [2002] ECR I-691, paras 38–42 and CJEU, Joined Cases C-264/01, C-306/01, C-354/01 and C-355/01 AOK Bundesverband [2004] ECR I-2493, paras 47–56.
- 108.
CJEU, Case C-70/95 Sodemare [1997] ECR I-3395, para 29.
- 109.
Consiglio di Stato, sez. V, 30 August 2006, No. 5072.
- 110.
Converted into Law No. 133 of 6 August 2008.
- 111.
The provision has been modified by Article 15 of the Law Decree No. 135 of 25 September 2009.
- 112.
(a) The contracting authority must exercise a control which is similar to that which it exercise over its own departments and (b) the in-house entity carries out the essential part of its activities with the controlling authority (CJEU, Case C-107/98 Teckal [1999] ECR I-8121, para 50). See Caranta 2010, pp. 13–52.
- 113.
A detailed analysis of decisions adopted by the Authority in this regard can be found in Cappiello and Mazzantini 2010, pp. 701–714.
- 114.
Emilia-Romagna, Liguria, Marche, Piemonte, Puglia, Toscana and Umbria.
- 115.
The referendum has been declared admissible by the Constitutional Court, judgment of 26 January 2011, No. 24 and it was held on 12–13 June 2011.
- 116.
In its decision on the admissibility of the referendum on Article 23-bis (judgment of 26 January 2011, No. 24), the Constitutional Court pointed out that the abrogation of the provision would have not determined the revival of the previous discipline contained in Article 113 TFEU. According to the Constitutional Court, the gap would have been filled by the direct application of EU rules.
- 117.
Converted into Law No. 148 of 16 September 2011.
- 118.
As recognized also by the Constitutional Court in judgment of 26 January 2011, No. 24.
- 119.
In a communication to the Government and the Parliament of 26 August 2011 (AS864), the Authority for Competition and Market highlighted that this provision might end up leading to the adoption of elusive behaviors by local authorities, such as breaking down the service into smaller parts, so to avoid the ban on the use of in-house arrangements.
- 120.
Constitutional Court, judgment of 27 July 2004, No. 272.
- 121.
See, for instance, Article 32 Regional Law of Umbria No. 26 of 28 December 2009 and Article 31 Regional Law of Piemonte No. 1 of 8 January 2004.
- 122.
Caranta and Richetto 2010, pp. 147–157.
- 123.
COM(2006) 177, p. 5.
- 124.
Article 3 Decree of the President of the Council of Ministers of 30 March 2001.
- 125.
TAR Lombardia, Sez. III, 14 March 2003, No. 459; TAR Veneto, Sez. I, 13 November 2003, No. 481; TAR Piemonte, Torino, Sez. II, 12 June 2006, No. 2323; TAR Campania, Napoli, Sez. I, No. 6411.
- 126.
Michiara 2005, p. 106.
- 127.
Caranta and Richetto 2010, p. 155.
- 128.
CJEU, Case C-119/06 Commission v. Italy [2007] ECR I-168.
- 129.
Consiglio di Stato, Sez. VI, 16 June 2009, No. 3897.
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Costamagna, F. (2013). The Provision of Social Services in Italy Between Federalization and Europeanization. In: Neergaard, U., Szyszczak, E., van de Gronden, J., Krajewski, M. (eds) Social Services of General Interest in the EU. Legal Issues of Services of General Interest. T.M.C. Asser Press, The Hague, The Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-6704-876-7_21
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