Abstract
Zhang Zai 張載 (1020–1077), one of the so-called Five Masters of the (Northern) Song period,1 has long been regarded as a forerunner of Learning of the Way (daoxue 道學) movement. He lived at a time when Lao-Zhuang Daoism, Huayan Buddhism, and Confucian thought interacted, competed, and were integrated. Confucian intellectuals attempted to revive classical Confucian thought within these vibrant cultural and historical conditions. In particular, Confucians faced strong criticisms from Huayan Buddhism, which enjoyed wide social popularity. Consequently, Confucians took a profound interest in cosmological, ontological, and metaphysical questions, all for the sake of responding effectively to the challenges posed by Buddhist beliefs. Zhang Zai’s philosophical work can best be understood within this broader context. Although Zhang Zai’s philosophy contains a wealth of ideas, two issues stand out most important: the relationship between the Ultimate Void (taixu 太虛) and qi (氣); and the relationship between heaven as a moral authority and human beings as transformative moral agents, analyzed through an integrated account of human nature. Both of these issues center on the discussion of qi and help to illuminate one of the fundamental philosophical problems in the Chinese tradition, namely the connection between condition/state (ti 體) and function/application (yong 用).
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Notes
- 1.
The other four are Zhou Dunyi (1017–1073), Shao Yong (1011–1077), Cheng Hao (1032–1085), and Cheng Yi (1033–1107).
- 2.
All translations of Chinese texts in this essay are by Robin R Wang.
- 3.
Zhang (1978: 387).
- 4.
Li (1990) defines these three aspects as a logical development.
- 5.
The other four masters are Dushun 杜順 (557–640), Zhiyan 智儼 (602–668), Fazang 法藏 (643–712), and Chengguan 澄觀 (738–839). For some of Zongmi’s criticisms, see Zongmi (1990: 342–346).
- 6.
The “six roots” refers to the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body, and intention (yi 意).
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Wang, R.R., Weixiang, D. (2010). Zhang Zai’s Theory of Vital Energy. In: Makeham, J. (eds) Dao Companion to Neo-Confucian Philosophy. Dao Companions to Chinese Philosophy, vol 1. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-2930-0_3
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