Skip to main content

Abstract

In the preceding chapters we discussed the central role that spatial and temporal variability play in ecological systems, the importance of addressing these explicitly within ecological analyses and the resulting need to carefully consider spatial and temporal scale and scaling. Landscape ecology is the science of linking patterns and processes across scale in both space and time. Thus landscape ecology is, in a real sense, the foundational science for addressing the central issues of sensitive dependence of ecological process on spatial and temporal variability. This chapter reviews the historical origins and evolution of landscape ecology, discusses its current scope and limitations, and then anticipates the following chapter by looking forward to identify how the field could best expand to address the central challenges of ecological prediction in spatially complex, temporally disequilibrial, multi-scale ecological systems.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 249.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Austin MP (1999) The potential contribution of vegetation ecology to biodiversity research. Ecography 22:465–484

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Austin MP, Smith TM (1989) A new model for the continuum concept. Vegetatio 83:35–47

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barbato G, Carneiro K, Cuppini D, Garnaes J, Gori G, Hughes G, Jensen CP, Jorgensen JF, Jusko O, Livi S, McQuoid H, Nielsen L, Picotto GB, Wilening G (1995) Scanning tunnelling microscopy methods for the characterization of roughness and micro hardness measurements. Synthesis report for research contract with the European Union under its programme for applied metrology. European Commission Catalogue number: CD-NA-16145 EN-C Brussels Luxemburg

    Google Scholar 

  • Beasom SL (1983). A technique for assessing land surface ruggedness. J Wildl Manag 47:1163–1166

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Christian CS (1958) The concept of land units and land systems. Proc Ninth Pacific Sci Cong 20:74–81

    Google Scholar 

  • Clements FE (1907) Plant physiology and ecology. Hentry Hold, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Clements FE (1916) The nature and structure of the climax. J Ecol 24:252–284

    Google Scholar 

  • Cowles HC (1899) The ecological relations of the vegetation on the sand dunes of lake Michigan. Botanical Gazette 27:95–117

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Curtis JT, McIntosh RP (1951) An upland forest continuum in the prairie-forest border region of Wisconsin. Ecol Monogr 32:476–496

    Google Scholar 

  • Cushman SA, McGarigal K (2002) Hierarchical, multiscale decomposition of species-environment relationships. Landsc Ecol 17:637–646

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cushman SA, McKenzie D, Peterson DL, Littell J, McKelvey KS (2007) Research agenda for integrated landscape modelling. USDA For Serv Gen Tech Rep RMRS-GTR-194

    Google Scholar 

  • Dale VH, O'Neill RV, Southworth F, Pedlowski M (1994) Modeling effects of land management in the Brazilian Amazonia settlement of Rondonia. Conserv Biol 8:196–206

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dansereau P (1957) Biogeography: an ecological perspective. Roland, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Dansereau P (1975) Inscape and landscape: the human perception of environment. Columbia University Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Dickinson RE (1970) Regoinal ecology: the study of man's environment. Wiley, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Dorner B, Lertzman K, Fall J (2002) Landscape pattern in topographically complex landscapes: issues and techniques for analysis. Landsc Ecol 17:729–743.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Egler FE (1942) Vegetation as an object of study. Philos Sci 9:245–260

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Evans JS, Cushman SA (2009) Gradient modeling of conifer species using random forests. Landscape Ecology 24:673–683.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fischer J, Lindenmayer DB (2006) Beyond fragmentation: the continuum model for fauna research and conservation in human-modified landscapes. Oikos 112:473–480

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Forbes SA (1887) The lake as a microcosm. Bull. of the Scientific Association (Peoria, IL), 1887:77–87

    Google Scholar 

  • Formann RTT (1981) Patches and structural components for a landscape ecology. Bioscience 31:733–744

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Forman RTT (1995) Land mosaics: the ecology of landscapes and regions. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Forman RTT, Godron M (1986) Landscape ecology. Wiley, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Gadelmawla ES, Koura MM, Maksoud TMA, Elewa IM, Soliman HH (2002) Roughness parameters. J Mat Process Tech 123:133–145

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gleason HA (1917) The structure and development of the plant association. Bull Torrey Bot Club 43:463–481

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gleason HA (1926) The individualistic concept of the plant association. Bull Torrey Bot Club 53:7–26

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gustafson E J, Parker GR (1992) Relationships between landcover proportion and indices of landscape spatial pattern. Landsc Ecol 7:101–110

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haines-Young (1993) Landcape ecology and geographic information systems. Taylor & Francis, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Haslett JR (1990) Geographic information systems: a new approach to habitat definition and the study of distributions. Trends Ecol Evol 5:214–218

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hobbs RI, Mooney HA (1990) Ecological studies 79: remote sensing of biosphere functioning. Springer, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoechstetter S, Walz U, Dang LH, Thinh NX (2008) Effects of topography and surface roughness in analyses of landscape structure – a proposal to modify the existing set of landscape metrics. Landsc Online 1:1–14

    Google Scholar 

  • Hutchinson GE (1957) Concluding remarks. Cold Spring Harbor Symp Quantitative Biol 22:415–427

    Google Scholar 

  • Isard W (1975) Introduction to regional science. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ

    Google Scholar 

  • Jaeger JAG (2000) Landscape division, splitting index, and effective mesh size: new measures of landscape fragmentation. Landsc Ecol 15:115–130

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jenness J (2004) Calculating landscape surface area from digital elevation models. Wildl Soc Bull 32:829–839

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jenness J (2005) Topographic Position Index (tip_jen.avx) extension for ArcView 3.x., Jenness Enterprises. http://www.jennessent.com/arview/tpi.htm.

  • Kareiva P, Wennergren U (1995) Connecting landscape patterns to ecosystem and population processes. Nature 373:299–302

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Keitt TH, Urban DL, Milne BT (1997) Detecting critical scales in fragmented landscapes. Conservat Ecol 1:4

    Google Scholar 

  • Krebs CJ (1994). Ecology: the experimental analysis of distribution and abundance, 4th ed. Harper Collins, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Krummel J R, Gardner RH, Sugihara G, O'Neill RV, Coleman PR (1987) Landscape configurations in a disturbed environment. Oikos 48:321–324

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lowe JC, Moryadas S (1975) The geography of movement. Houghton Mifflin, Boston, MA

    Google Scholar 

  • MacArthur RH, Wilson EO (1963) A equilibrium theory of insular zoogeography. Evolution 17:373–387

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Manning AD, Lindenmayer DB, Nix HA (2004) Continua and umwelt: novel perspectives on viewing landscapes. Oikos 104:621–628

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McGarigal K, Cushman SA (2005) The gradient concept of landscape structure. In: Wiens J, Moss M (eds) Issues and Perspectives in Landscape Ecology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • McGarigal K, Marks BJ (1995) FRAGSTATS: spatial pattern analysis program for quantifying landscape structure. US For Serv Gen Tech Rep PNW-GTR-351

    Google Scholar 

  • McGarigal K, Cushman SA, Neel MC, Ene E (2002) FRAGSTATS: spatial pattern analysis program for categorical maps. Computer software program produced by the authors at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst www.umass.edu/landeco/research/fragstats/fragstats.html

  • McGarigal K, Tagil S, Cushman SA (2009) Surface metrics: An alternative to patch metrics for the quantification of landscape structure. Landsc Ecol 24:433–450

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McIntyre S, Barrett GW (1992) Habitat variegation, an alternative to ragmentation. Conservat Biol 6:146–147

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Melton MA (1957) An analysis of the relations among elements of climate, surface properties, and geomorphology. Columbia Univ, Dep Geol, Proj NR 389–042 Tech Rep 11, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore ID, Gryson RB, Ladson AR (1991) Digital terrain modeling: a review of hydrological, geomorphological, and biological applications. Hydrolog Process 5:3–30

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moore ID, Gessler PE, Nielsen GA, Petersen GA (1993) Terrain attributes: estimation methods and scale effects. In: Jakeman MB, McAleer (eds): Modeling change in environmental systems. Wiley, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Naveh Z, Lieberman A (1994) Landscape ecology: theory and applications, 2nd ed. Springer, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Pearson SM, Turner MG, Gardner RH, O'Neill RV (1996) An organism-based perspective of habitat fragmentation. In: Szaro RC, Johnston DW (eds) Biodiversity in managed landscapes: theory and practice. Oxford University Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Pickett STA, Cadenasso ML (1995) Landsape ecology: spatial heterogeneity in ecological systems. Science 269:331–334

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pike RJ (2000) Geomorphometry – diversity in quantitative surface analysis. Progr Phys Geogr 24:1–20

    Google Scholar 

  • Ramasawmy H, Stout KJ, Blunt L (2000) Effect of secondary processing on EDM surfaces. Surf Eng J 16:501–505

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Real LA, Brown JH (1991) Foundations of ecology: classic papers with commentaries. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL

    Google Scholar 

  • Sanson GD, Stolk R, Downes BJ (1995) A new method for characterizing surface roughness and available space in biological systems. Funct Ecol 9:127–135.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sauer CO (1965) Land and life. University of California Press, Berkeley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schumm SA (1956) Evolution of drainage basins and slopes in badlands at Perth Amboy, New Jersey. Bull Geol Soc Am 67:597–646

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stout KJ, Sullivan PJ, Dong WP, Mainsah E, Lou N, Mathia T, Zahouani H (1994) The development of methods for the characterization of roughness on three dimensions. Publication no EUR 15178 EN of the Commission of the European Communities, Luxembourg

    Google Scholar 

  • Strahler AN (1952) Hypsometric (area-altitude) analysis of erosional topography. Bull Geol Soc Am 63:1117–1142

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taaffe EJ, Gauthier HJ (1973) Geography of transportation. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ

    Google Scholar 

  • Tansley AG (1935) The use and misuse of vegetatoinal terms and concepts. Ecology 16

    Google Scholar 

  • Terborgh J (1976) Island biogeography and conservation: strategy and limitations. Science 193:1029–1030

    Google Scholar 

  • Troll C (1971) Landscape ecology (geoecology) and biogeocenology: a terminological study. GeoForum 8:43–46

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turner MG (1987) Landscape heterogeneity and disturbance. Ecol Studies 64. Springer, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner MG (1989) Landscape ecology: the effect of pattern on process. Annl Rev Ecol Systemat 20:171–197

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turner MG (2005) Landscape ecology: what is the state of the science? Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst 36:319–44

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turner MG, Gardner RH, O'Neill RV (2001) Landscape ecology in theory and practice. Springer, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Villarrubia JS (1997) Algorithms for scanned probe microscope, image simulation, surface reconstruction and tip estimation. J Nat Inst Stand Technol 102:435–454

    Google Scholar 

  • Whittaker RH (1967) Gradient analysis of vegetation. Biol Rev 42:207–264

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wiens JA (1989) Spatial scaling in ecology. Funct Ecol 3:385–397

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wiens JA (1994) Habitat fragmentation: island v landscape perspectives on bird conservation. Ibis 137:S97–S104

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wiens JA, Stenseth NC, Van Horne B, Ims RA (1993) Ecological mechanisms and landscape ecology. Oikos 66:369–380

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson JP, Gallant JC (2000) Terrain analysis: principles and applications. Wiley, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • With KA, Crist TO (1995) Critical thresholds in species' responses to landscape structure. Ecology 76:2446–2459

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • With, KA, and King, AW (1999) Extinction thresholds for species in fractal landscapes. Conserv Biol 13:314–326

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • With KA, Gardner RH, Turner MG (1997) Landscape connectivity and population distributions in heterogeneous environments. Oikos 78:151–169

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zonneveld IS (1972) Textbook of photo-interpretatoin, Vol. 7. ITC, Enschede

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Samuel A. Cushman .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2010 Springer

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Cushman, S.A., Evans, J.S., McGarigal, K. (2010). Landscape Ecology: Past, Present, and Future. In: Cushman, S.A., Huettmann, F. (eds) Spatial Complexity, Informatics, and Wildlife Conservation. Springer, Tokyo. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-87771-4_4

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics