Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Host Manipulation by Toxoplasma gondii

  • Reference work entry
  • First Online:
Encyclopedia of Parasitology

Many parasites have evolved adaptive mechanisms for manipulation of host phenotypes, including behavior, to increase their chances of transmission from infected to noninfected hosts (Holmes and Bethel 1972). Very conspicuous behavioral changes are induced by parasites that are transmitted from intermediate to definitive host by predation because induced behavioral patterns increase biological fitness of the manipulating parasite but decrease fitness of the carrier – the infected animal. An already classical model for studying manipulative activity of parasites is the heteroxenous coccidian Toxoplasma gondii, whose life cycle includes transmission from intermediate host (any warm-blooded animal) to definitive host (any feline species) by predation. Toxoplasma is known to modify not only the behavior of its intermediate animal hosts but also the behavior and personality of infected humans.

The first indices of manipulation activity of Toxoplasmaappeared in the 1960s–1970s of the...

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 1,399.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 1,799.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Abdoli A (2013) Toxoplasma gondii and neuropsychiatric diseases: strain hypothesis. Neurol Sci 34(9):1697–1698. doi:10.1007/s10072-012-1264-x

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berdoy M, Webster JP, Macdonald DW (1995) Parasite-altered behaviour: is the effect of Toxoplasma gondii on Rattus norvegicus specific? Parasitology 111:403–409

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berdoy M, Webster JP, Macdonald DW (2000) Fatal attraction in rats infected with Toxoplasma gondii. Proc R Soc B-Biol Sci 267(1452):1591–1594

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Beste C, Getzmann S, Gajewski PD, Golka K, Falkenstein M (2014) Latent Toxoplasma gondii infection leads to deficits in goal-directed behavior in healthy elderly. Neurobiol Aging 35(5):1037–1044. doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2013.11.012

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ferreira EC, Marchioro AA, Guedes TA, Mota D, Guilherme ALF, de Araujo SM (2013) Association between seropositivity for Toxoplasma gondii, scholastic development of children and risk factors for T-gondii infection. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 107(6):390–396. doi:10.1093/trstmh/trt026

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Flegr J (2010) Influence of latent toxoplasmosis on the phenotype of intermediate hosts. Folia Parasitol (Praha) 57:81–87

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flegr J (2013a) How and why Toxoplasma makes us crazy. Trends Parasitol 29(4):156–163

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Flegr J (2013b) Influence of latent Toxoplasma infection on human personality, physiology and morphology: pros and cons of the Toxoplasma-human model in studying the manipulation hypothesis. J Exp Biol 216(1):127–133. doi:10.1242/jeb.073635

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Flegr J, Hrdý I (1994) Influence of chronic toxoplasmosis on some human personality factors. Folia Parasitol (Praha) 41:122–126

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Flegr J, Havlíček J, Kodym P, Malý M, Šmahel Z (2002) Increased risk of traffic accidents in subjects with latent toxoplasmosis: a retrospective case-control study. BMC Infect Dis 2:art-11

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flegr J, Hrušková M, Hodný Z, Novotná M, Hanušová J (2005) Body height, body mass index, waist-hip ratio, fluctuating asymmetry and second to fourth digit ratio in subjects with latent toxoplasmosis. Parasitology 130:621–628

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Flegr J, Lindová J, Kodym P (2008) Sex-dependent toxoplasmosis-associated differences in testosterone concentration in humans. Parasitology 135:427–431

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Flegr J, Klose J, Novotná M, Berenreitterová M, Havlíček J (2009) Increased incidence of traffic accidents in Toxoplasma-infected military drivers and protective effect RhD molecule revealed by a large-scale prospective cohort study. BMC Infect Dis 9:72

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Flegr J, Lenochová P, Hodný Z, Vondrová M (2011) Fatal attraction phenomenon in humans: cat odour attractiveness increased for Toxoplasma-infected men while decreased for infected women. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 5(11):e1389. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0001389

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Flegr J, Geryk J, Volny J, Klose J, Cernochova D (2012a) Rhesus factor modulation of effects of smoking and age on psychomotor performance, intelligence, personality profile, and health in Czech soldiers. PLoS One 7(11):e49478. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0049478

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Flegr J, Guenter W, Bielinski M (2012b) Toxoplasma gondii infection affects cognitive function – corrigendum. Folia Parasitol (Praha) 59:253–254

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flegr J, Preiss M, Klose J (2013) Toxoplasmosis-associated difference in intelligence and personality in men depends on their Rhesus blood group but not ABO blood group. PLoS One 8(4):e61272. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0061272

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Flegr J, Prandota J, Sovičková M, Israili ZH (2014) Toxoplasmosis – a global threat. Correlation between latent toxoplasmosis and specific disease burden – a WHO data-based study of 29 European and 59 non-European countries. PLoS ONE 9(3): e90203. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0090203

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaskell EA, Smith JE, Pinney JW, Westhead DR, McConkey GA (2009) A unique dual activity amino acid hydroxylase in Toxoplasma gondii. PLoS One 4:e4801

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Havlíček J, Gašová Z, Smith AP, Zvára K, Flegr J (2001) Decrease of psychomotor performance in subjects with latent ‘asymptomatic’ toxoplasmosis. Parasitology 122:515–520

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hay J, Hutchison WM, Aitken PP, Graham DI (1983) The effect of congenital and adult-acquired Toxoplasma infections on activity and responsiveness to novel stimulation in mice. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 77:483–495

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hay J, Aitken PP, Graham DI (1984a) Toxoplasma infection and response to novelty in mice. Z Parasitenkd 70:575–588

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hay J, Aitken PP, Hair DM, Hutchison WM, Graham DI (1984b) The effect of congenital Toxoplasma infection on mouse activity and relative preference for exposed areas over a series of trials. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 78:611–618

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hay J, Aitken PP, Arnott MA (1985) The influence of Toxoplasma infection on the spontaneous running activity of mice. Z Parasitenkd 71:459–462

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Holmes J, Bethel WM (1972) Modification of intermediate host behaviour by parasites. In: Canning EU, Wright CA (eds) Behavioural aspects of parasite transmission. Academic, New York, pp 123–149

    Google Scholar 

  • Holub D, Flegr J, Dragomirecka E, Rodriguez M, Preiss M, Novak T, … Motlova LB (2013) Differences in onset of disease and severity of psychopathology between toxoplasmosis-related and toxoplasmosis-unrelated schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatr Scand 127:227–238. doi:10.1111/acps.12031

    Google Scholar 

  • Horacek J, Flegr J, Tintera J, Verebova K, Spaniel F, Novak T, … Hoschl C (2012) Latent toxoplasmosis reduces gray matter density in schizophrenia but not in controls: voxel-based-morphometry (VBM) study. World J Biol Psychiatry 13(7):501–509. doi:10.3109/15622975.2011.573809

    Google Scholar 

  • Hrdá Š, Votýpka J, Kodym P, Flegr J (2000) Transient nature of Toxoplasma gondii-induced behavioral changes in mice. J Parasitol 86(4):657–663

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hutchison WM, Aitken PP, Wells BW (1980a) Chronic Toxoplasma infections and motor performance in the mouse. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 74:507–510

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hutchison WM, Bradley M, Cheyne WM, Wells BWP, Hay J (1980b) Behavioural abnormalities in Toxoplasma-infected mice. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 74:337–345

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaňková Š, Kodym P, Frynta D, Vavřinová R, Kuběna A, Flegr J (2007a) Influence of latent toxoplasmosis on the secondary sex ratio in mice. Parasitology 134:1709–1717

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kaňková Š, Šulc J, Nouzová K, Fajfrlik K, Frynta D, Flegr J (2007b) Women infected with parasite Toxoplasma have more sons. Naturwissenschaften 94:122–127

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kannan G, Moldovan K, Xiao JC, Yolken RH, Jones-Brando L, Pletnikov MV (2010) Toxoplasma gondii strain-dependent effects on mouse behaviour. Folia Parasitol (Praha) 57:151–155

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kocazeybek B, Oner YA, Turksoy R, Babur C, Cakan H, Sahip N, … Torun MM (2009) Higher prevalence of toxoplasmosis in victims of traffic accidents suggest increased risk of traffic accident in Toxoplasma-infected inhabitants of Istanbul and its suburbs. Forensic Sci Int 187:103–108

    Google Scholar 

  • Lafferty KD (2006) Can the common brain parasite, Toxoplasma gondii, influence human culture? Proc R Soc B-Biol Sci 273:2749–2755

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lester D (2010) Predicting European suicide rates with physiological indices. Psychol Rep 107:713–714

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lim A, Kumar V, Hari Dass SA, Vyas A (2013) Toxoplasma gondii infection enhances testicular steroidogenesis in rats. Mol Ecol 22(1):102–110. doi:10.1111/mec.12042

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lindová J, Novotná M, Havlíček J, Jozífková E, Skallová A, Kolbeková P, … Flegr J (2006) Gender differences in behavioural changes induced by latent toxoplasmosis. Int J Parasitol 36:1485–1492

    Google Scholar 

  • Lindová J, Kuběna AA, Šturcová A, Křivohlavá R, Novotná M, Rubešová A, … Flegr J (2010) Pattern of money allocation in experimental games supports the stress hypothesis of gender differences in Toxoplasma gondii-induced behavioural changes. Folia Parasitol (Praha), 57:136–142

    Google Scholar 

  • Nikam SS, Awasthi AK (2008) Evolution of schizophrenia drugs: a focus on dopaminergic systems. Curr Opin Investig Drugs 9:37–46

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Novotná M, Havlíček J, Smith AP, Kolbeková P, Skallová A, Klose J, … Flegr J (2008) Toxoplasma and reaction time: role of toxoplasmosis in the origin, preservation and geographical distribution of Rh blood group polymorphism. Parasitology 135:1253–1261

    Google Scholar 

  • Piekarski G, Zippelius HM, Witting PA (1978) Auswirkungen einer latenten Toxoplasma-Infektion auf das Lernvermogen von weissen Laboratoriumsratten and mausen. Z Parasitenkd 57:1–15

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prandovszky E, Gaskell E, Martin H, Dubey JP, Webster JP, McConkey GA (2011) The neurotropic parasite Toxoplasma gondii increases dopamine metabolism. PLoS One 6(9):e23866

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Skallová A, Kodym P, Frynta D, Flegr J (2006) The role of dopamine in Toxoplasma-induced behavioural alterations in mice: an ethological and ethopharmacological study. Parasitology 133:525–535

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stock AK, Heintschel von Heinegg E, Kohling HL, Beste C (2013) Latent Toxoplasma gondii infection leads to improved action control. Brain Behav Immun. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2013.11.004

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vyas A, Kim SK, Giacomini N, Boothroyd JC, Sapolsky RM (2007) Behavioral changes induced by Toxoplasma infection of rodents are highly specific to aversion of cat odors. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 104:6442–6447

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wang HL, Wang GH, Li QY, Shu C, Jiang MS, Guo Y (2006) Prevalence of Toxoplasma infection in first-episode schizophrenia and comparison between Toxoplasma-seropositive and Toxoplasma-seronegative schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatr Scand 114:40–48

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Webster JP (1994) The effect of Toxoplasma gondii and other parasites on activity levels in wild and hybrid Rattus norvegicus. Parasitology 109:583–589

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Webster JP, Brunton CFA, Macdonald DW (1994) Effect of Toxoplasma gondii upon neophobic behaviour in wild rats Rattus norvegicus. Parasitol 109:37–43

    Google Scholar 

  • Willner P (1997) The dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia: current status, future prospects [Review]. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 12(6):297–308

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Witting PA (1979) Learning capacity and memory of normal and Toxoplasma-infected laboratory rats and mice. Z Parasitenkd 61:29–51

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Xiao J, Kannan G, Jones-Brando L, Brannock C, Krasnova IN, Cadet JL, … Yolken RH (2012) Sex-specific changes in gene expression and behavior induced by chronic Toxoplasma infection in mice. Neuroscience 206:39–48. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2011.12.051

    Google Scholar 

  • Xiao JC, Li Y, Jones-Brando L, Yolken RH (2013) Abnormalities of neurotransmitter and neuropeptide systems in human neuroepithelioma cells infected by three Toxoplasma strains. J Neural Transm 120(12):1631–1639. doi:10.1007/s00702-013-1064-3

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Yereli K, Balcioglu IC, Ozbilgin A (2006) Is Toxoplasma gondii a potential risk for traffic accidents in Turkey? Forensic Sci Int 163:34–37

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Charles University in Prague, Viničná 7, CZ 128 44, Prague, Czech Republic

    Jaroslav Flegr

Authors
  1. Jaroslav Flegr
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jaroslav Flegr .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Institut für Zoomorphologie, Zellbiologie und Parasitologie, Heinrich-Heine-Universität, Düsseldorf, Germany

    Heinz Mehlhorn

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2016 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

About this entry

Cite this entry

Flegr, J. (2016). Host Manipulation by Toxoplasma gondii. In: Mehlhorn, H. (eds) Encyclopedia of Parasitology. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-43978-4_3464

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation