Skip to main content

The biological efficacy (erythema action) of the radiation is dependent on wavelength. The unit SED (standard erythema dose) is a direct measure of the erythema action of radiation. The skin by itself absorbs UV radiation depending on the thickness of stratum corneum and the degree of pigmentation. When testing SPF of a sunscreen in humans 2 mg/cm2 is applied, in real life much less sunscreen is used 0.5 mg/cm2. It has been suggested that the protection is reduced exponentially when a thinner layer is used. The number of sunburn cells, cutaneous DNA damage, conversion of urocanic acid, and immu-nosuppression are diminished by sunscreen use. Human studies have indicated that the number of actinic keratoses as well as squamous cell carcinomas can be reduced if sunscreens are used regularly.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 159.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Antoniou C, Kosmadaki MG, Stratigos AJ, Katsambas AD. Sunscreens — what's important to know. JEADV. 2008;22: 1110–9

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Autier P, Boniol M, Severi G, Doré JF. Quantty of sunscreen used by European students. Br J Dermatol. 2001;144:288–91

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Bech-Thomsen N, Wulf HC. Sunbathers' applicaton of sunscreen is probably inadequate to obtain the sun protection factor assigned to the preparation. Photodermatol Photo-immunol Photomed. 1992/1993;9:242–4

    Google Scholar 

  4. Bimczok R, Gers-Barlag H, Mundt C, Klette E, Bielfeldt S, Rudolph T, Pflucker F, Heinrich U, Tronnier H, Johncock W, Klebon B, Westenfelder H, Flosser-Muller H, Jenni K, Kockott D, Lademann J, Herzog B, Rohr M. Influence of applied quantity of sunscreen products on the sun protection factor — a multicenter study organized by the DGK Task Force Sun Protection. Skin Pharmacol Physiol. 2007;20: 57–64

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Bodekær M, Faurschou A-S, Philipsen PA, Wulf HC. Sun protection factor persistence during a day with physical activity and bathing. Photodermatol Photoimmunol Photomed. 2008;24:296–300

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Boyd AS, Naylor M, Camerson GS, Pearse AD, Gaskell SA, Nelder KH. The effects of chronic sunscreen use on the his-tologic changes of dermatoheliosis. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1995;33:941–6

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Bryden AM, Moseley H, Ibotson SH, Chowdhury MM, Beck MH, Bourke J, et al 2006. Photopatch testing of 1155 patients: results of the U.K. multicentre photopatch study group. Br J Dermatol. 2006;155(4):737–47

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. CTFA-SA, COLIPA, JCIA: International sun protection factor (SPF) test method. 2003

    Google Scholar 

  9. Darlington S, Williams G, Neale R, Frost C, Green A. A randomized controlled trial to assess sunscreen application and beta carotene supplementation in the prevention of solar keratoses. Arch Dermatol. 2003;139:451–5

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Derry JE, McLean WM, Freeman JB. At study of the percutaneous absorption from topically applied zinc oxide ointment. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1983;7:131–5

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Diffey BL, Jansén CT, Urbach F, Wulf HC. The standard erythema dose. A new photobiological concept. Am Soc Photobiol Newslet. 1997;26(2):6–7

    Google Scholar 

  12. Dunford R, Slinaro A, Cai L, Serpone N, Horikoshi S, Hidaka H, Knowland J. Chemical oxidation and DNA damage catalysed by inorganic sunscreen ingredients. Federation Eup Biochem Soc. 1997;418:87–90

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Durrer S, Maerkel K, Schlumpf M, Lichtensteiger W. Estrogen target gene regulation and coactivator expression in rat uterus after developmental exposure to the ultraviolet filter 4-methylbensylidene camphor. Endocrinology. 2005; 146(5):2130–9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. EC, Commission Recommendation of 22 September 2006. On the efficacy of sunscreen products and the claims made relating thereto. Text with EEA relevance. Official Journal of the European Union 2006;L265:39–43

    Google Scholar 

  15. Faurschou A, Wulf HC. The relation between sun protection factor and amount of sunscreen applied in vivo. Br J Dermatol. 2007;156:716–9

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. 16.FDA, Department of Health and Human Services Food and Drug Administation, USA, Sunscreen drug products for over-the-counter use: proposed safety, effectiveness and labelling conditons, Fed Reg. 1978 N-0038 RIN 0910-AF43.

    Google Scholar 

  17. 17.FDA, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Department of Health and Human Services FDA.Sunscreen drug products for over-the-counter human use. http://www.regulations.gov 2007

  18. Gallagher RP, Rivers JK, Lee TK, Bajdik CD, McLean DI, Coldman AJ. Broad-spectrum sunscreen use and the development of new nevi in white children: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2000;283:2955–60

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Green A, Williams G, Neale R, Heart V, Leslie D, Parson P, Marks GC, Gaffney P, Battistutta D, Frost C, Lang C, Russel A. Daily sunscreen application and betacarotene supplementation in prevention of basal-cell and squamous-cell carcinomas of the skin: a randomized controlled trial. Lancet. 1999;354:723–9. Erratum in Lancet 1999;354:1038

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Harris SS, Dawson-Hughes B. Reduced sun exposure does not explain the inverse association of 25-hydroxyvitamin D with body fat in older adults. J Clin Endocrin Metab. 2007; 92:3155–7

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Janjua NR, Kongshoj B,Andersson AM, Wulf HC. Sunscreen in human plasma and urine after repeated whole-body topical application. Eup Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2008;22(4):456–61

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Janjua NR, Kongshoj B, Petersen JH, Wulf HC. Sunscreen and thyroid function. Br J Deratol. 2007;156:1080–2

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Janjua NR, Mogensen B, Anderson AM, Holm J, Henriksen M, Skakkebæk NE, Wulf HC. Systemic absorption of the sunscreens benzophenone-3, octyl-methoxycinnamate and 3-(4-methylenzylidene) camphor after whole body topical application and reproductive hormone levels in humans. J Invest Dermatol. 2004;123(1):57–61

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Kligman EW, Watkins A, Johnson K, Kronland R. The impact of lifestyle factors on serum 25-hydroxy vitamin D levels in older adults: a preliminary study. Fam Pract Res J. 1989;9:11–9

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Kromann N, Wulf HC, Eriksen P, Brodthagen H. Relative ultraviolet spectral intensity of direct solar radiation, sky radiation and surface reflection. Photodermatol. 1986;3: 73–82

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Lademann J, Weigmann H-J, Rickmeyer C, Barthelmes H, Schaefer H, Mueller G, Sterry W. Penetration of titanium dioxide microparticles in a sunscreen formulation into the horny layer and the follicular orifice. Skin Pharmacol Appl Skin Physiol. 1999;12:247–56

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Lock-Andersen J, Wulf HC. Seasonal variation of skin pigmentation. Acta Derm Venereol. 1997;77:219–21

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Lautenschlager S, Wulf HC, Pittelkow MR. Photoprotection. Lancet. 2007;370:528–37

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Matsuoka LY, Wortsman J, Hollis BW. Use of topical sunscreen for the evaluation of regional synthesis of vitamin D3. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1990;22:772–5

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Naylor MF, Boyd A, Smith DW, Cameron GS, Hubbard D, Neldner KH. High SPF sunscreens in the suppression of actinic neoplasia. Arch Dermatol. 1995;131:170–5

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Rooney JF, Bryson Y, Mannix ML, Dillon M, Wohlenberg CR, Banks S, Wallington CJ, Notkins AL, Straus SE. Prevention of ultraviolet-light-induced herpes laialis by sunscreen. Lancet. 1991;338:1419–22

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Schlumpf M, Schmid P, Durrer S, Conscience M, Maerkel K, Henseler M, Gruetter M, Herzog I, Reolon S, Ceccatalli R, Faass O, Stutz E, Jarry H, Wuttke W, Lichtensteiger W. Endocrine activity and developmental toxicity of cosmetic UV — filters — an update. Toxicology. 2004;205:113–22

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Schmutzler C, Hamann I, Hofmann PJ, Konvacs G, Stemmler L, Mentrup B, Schomburg L, Ambrugger P, Grunters A, Seidlove-Wuttke D, Jarry H, Wuttke W, Kohrle J. Endocrine active compounds affect thyrotropin and thyroid hormone levels in serum as well as endpoints of thyroid hormone action in liver, heart and kidney. Toxicology. 2004;205: 95–102

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Shaath NA. Evolution of modern sunscreen chemicals. In: Lowe NJ, Shaath NA (eds) Sunscreens: development, evaluation and regulatory aspects. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1990, pp. 3–35

    Google Scholar 

  35. Stender I-M, Lock-Anderson J, Wulf HC. Sun exposure and sunscreen use among sunbathers in Denmark. Acta Derm Venereol. 1996;76:31–3

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Tarras-Wahlberg N, Stenhagen G, Larkö O, Rosén A, Wenneberg A-M, Wennerström O. Changes in ultraviolet absorption of sunscreens after ultraviolet irradiation. J Invest Dermatol. 1999;113:547–53

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Thieden E, Philipsen PA, Heydenreich J, Wulf HC. UV radiation exposure related to age, sex, occupation, and sun behavior based on time-stamped personal dosimeter readings. Arch Dermatol. 2004;140:197–203

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Thieden E, Philipsen PA, Sandby-Moeller J, Wulf HC. Sunscreen use related to UV exposure, age, sex and occupation based on personal dosimeter readings and sun-exposure behavior diaries. Arch Dermatol. 2005;141:967–73

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Thompson SC, Jolley D, Marks R. Reduction of solar kera-toses by regular sunscreen use. N Engl J Med. 1993; 329: 1147–51

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Urbach F. The historical aspects of sunscreens. J Photochem Photobiol B. 2001;64(2):99–104

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Van der Pols JC, Williams G, Paneya N, Logan V, Green AC. Prolonged prevention of squamous cell carcinoma of the skin by regular sunscreen use. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2006;15:2546–8

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. 42.World Health Organisation. Sun protection message for tourists. Available at: www.who.int/uv/publications/en/tour-ists. Accessed 8 January 2007

  43. Wulf HC, Lock-Andersen J. Standard erythema dose. Skin Res Technol. 1996;4:192

    Google Scholar 

  44. Wulf HC, Lock-Andersen J. Measurement of constitutive skin phototypes. In: Altmeyer et al (eds) Skin cancer and UV radiation. Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany: Springer, 1997, pp. 169–80

    Google Scholar 

  45. Wulf HC, Poulsen T, Brodthagen H, Hou-Jensen K. Sunscreens for delay of ultraviolet induction of skin tumors. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1982;7:194–202

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Wulf HC, Sandby-Moeller J, Kabayasi T, Cniadecki R. Skin aging and natural photoprotection. Micron. 2004;35(3): 185–91

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Wulf HC, Stender I-M, Lock-Andersen J. Sunscreens used at the beach do not protect against erythema: a new defini-tion of SPF is proposed. Photodermatol Photoimmunol Photomed. 1997;13:129–32

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Young AR, Orchard GE, Harrison GI, Klock JL. The detrimental effects of daily sub-erythemal exposure on human skin in vivo can be prevented by a daily-care broad-spectrum sunscreen. J Invest Dermatol. 2007;127:975–8

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Hans Christian Wulf .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2010 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Wulf, H.C. (2010). Sunscreens. In: Jemec, G.B.E., Kemeny, L., Miech, D. (eds) Non-Surgical Treatment of Keratinocyte Skin Cancer. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-79341-0_21

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-79341-0_21

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-540-79340-3

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-540-79341-0

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics