Abstract
The widespread use of printing of 2D materials in their relevant applications is highly dependent on the cost and scalability of their methods of production. This chapter serves as an introduction to the key methods for 2D material production and characterisation. Methods such as chemical vapour deposition, plasma cracking of hydrocarbons, intercalation, chemical exfoliation and liquid phase exfoliation are described and their relative merits are discussed. Particular emphasis is given to the 2D materials relevant to ink production. The latter half of the chapter discusses commonly used processing steps and characterisation methods for the 2D materials and their respective roles in qualifying and quantifying the material produced.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
F. Bonaccorso, A. Lombardo, T. Hasan, Z. Sun, L. Colombo, A.C. Ferrari, Production and processing of graphene and 2D crystals. Mater. Today 15(12), 564–589 (2012)
K.S. Novoselov, A.K. Geim, S.V. Morozov, D. Jiang, Y. Zhang, S.V. Dubonos, I.V. Grigorieva, A.A. Firsov, Electric field effect in atomically thin carbon films. Science 306(5696), 666–669 (2004)
K.S. Novoselov, D. Jiang, F. Schedin, T.J. Booth, V.V. Khotkevich, S.V. Morozov, A.K. Geim, Two-dimensional atomic crystals. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 102(30), 10451–10453 (2005)
Y. Zhang, L. Zhang, C. Zhou, Review of chemical vapor deposition of graphene and related applications. Acc. Chem. Res. 46(10), 2329–2339 (2013)
J. Yu, J. Li, W. Zhang, H. Chang, Synthesis of high quality two-dimensional materials via chemical vapor deposition. Chem. Sci. 6, 6705–6716 (2015)
Z.A. Munir, U. Anselmi-Tamburini, M. Ohyanagi, The effect of electric field and pressure on the synthesis and consolidation of materials: a review of the spark plasma sintering method. J. Mater. Sci. 41(3), 763–777 (2006)
G. Cunningham, M. Lotya, C.S. Cucinotta, S. Sanvito, S.D. Bergin, R. Menzel, M.S.P. Shaffer, J.N. Coleman, Solvent exfoliation of transition metal dichalcogenides: dispersibility of exfoliated nanosheets varies only weakly between compounds. ACS Nano 6(4), 3468–3480 (2012)
H. Li, J. Wu, X. Huang, G. Lu, J. Yang, X. Lu, Q. Xiong, H. Zhang, Rapid and reliable thickness identification of two-dimensional nanosheets using optical microscopy. ACS Nano 7(11), 10344–10353 (2013)
R.F. Frindt, A.D. Yoffe, Physical properties of layer structures: optical properties and photoconductivity of thin crystals of molybdenum disulphide. Proc. R. Soc. A 273(1352), 69–83 (1963)
R.F. Frindt, Optical absorption of a few unit-cell layers of MoS2. Phys. Rev. 140(2A), A536–A539 (1965)
R.F. Frindt, Single crystals of MoS2 several molecular layers thick. J. Appl. Phys. 37(4), 1928–1929 (1966)
X. Lu, M. Yu, H. Huang, R.S. Ruoff, Tailoring graphite with the goal of achieving single sheets. Nanotechnology 10(3), 269–272 (1999)
A.K. Geim, K.S. Novoselov, The rise of graphene. Nat. Mater. 6(3), 183–191 (2007)
S. Bae, H. Kim, Y. Lee, X. Xu, J.-S. Park, Y. Zheng, J. Balakrishnan, T. Lei, H.R. Kim, Y.I. Song, Y.-J. Kim, K.S. Kim, B. Ozyilmaz, J.-H. Ahn, B.H. Hong, S. Iijima, Roll-to-roll production of 30-inch graphene films for transparent electrodes. Nat. Nanotechnol. 5(8), 574–578 (2010)
X. Chen, B. Wu, Y. Liu, Direct preparation of high quality graphene on dielectric substrates. Chem. Soc. Rev. 45(8), 2057–2074 (2016)
Y. Chen, X.L. Gong, J.-G. Gai, Progress and challenges in transfer of large-area graphene films. Adv. Sci. 3(8), 1500343 (2016)
N. Petrone, C.R. Dean, I. Meric, A.M. van der Zande, P.Y. Huang, L. Wang, D. Muller, K.L. Shepard, J. Hone, Chemical vapor deposition-derived graphene with electrical performance of exfoliated graphene. Nano Lett. 12(6), 2751–2756 (2012)
G. Ruan, Z. Sun, Z. Peng, J.M. Tour, Growth of graphene from food, insects, and waste. ACS Nano 5(9), 7601–7607 (2011)
Y.-H. Lee, X.-Q. Zhang, W. Zhang, M.-T. Chang, C.-T. Lin, K.-D. Chang, Y.-C. Yu, J.T.-W. Wang, C.-S. Chang, L.-J. Li, T.-W. Lin, Synthesis of large-area MoS2 atomic layers with chemical vapor deposition. Adv. Mater. 24(17), 2320–2325 (2012)
K.-K. Liu, W. Zhang, Y.-H. Lee, Y.-C. Lin, M.-T. Chang, C.-Y. Su, C.-S. Chang, H. Li, Y. Shi, H. Zhang, C.-S. Lai, L.-J. Li, Growth of large-area and highly crystalline MoS2 thin layers on insulating substrates. Nano Lett. 12(3), 1538–1544 (2012)
Y.-H. Lee, L. Yu, H. Wang, W. Fang, X. Ling, Y. Shi, C.-T. Lin, J.-K. Huang, M.-T. Chang, C.-S. Chang, M. Dresselhaus, T. Palacios, L.-J. Li, J. Kong, Synthesis and transfer of single-layer transition metal disulfides on diverse surfaces. Nano Lett. 13(4), 1852–1857 (2013)
S. Najmaei, Z. Liu, W. Zhou, X. Zou, G. Shi, S. Lei, B.I. Yakobson, J.-C. Idrobo, P.M. Ajayan, J. Lou, Vapour phase growth and grain boundary structure of molybdenum disulphide atomic layers. Nat. Mater. 12(8), 754–759 (2013)
Z.J. Qi, S.J. Hong, J.A. Rodríguez-Manzo, N.J. Kybert, R. Gudibande, M. Drndić, Y.W. Park, A.T. Charlie Johnson, Electronic transport in heterostructures of chemical vapor deposited graphene and hexagonal boron nitride. Small 11(12), 1402–1408 (2015)
W.J. Zhang, C.Y. Chan, K.M. Chan, I. Bello, Y. Lifshitz, S.T. Lee, Deposition of large-area, high-quality cubic boron nitride films by ECR-enhanced microwave-plasma CVD. Appl. Phys. Mater. Sci. Process. 76(6), 953–955 (2003)
S.J. Cartamil-Bueno, M. Cavalieri, R. Wang, S. Houri, S. Hofmann, H.S.J. van der Zant, Mechanical characterization and cleaning of CVD single-layer h-BN resonators. NPJ 2D Mater. Appl. 1(1), 16 (2017)
A. Gurarslan, Y. Yu, L. Su, Y. Yu, F. Suarez, S. Yao, Y. Zhu, M. Ozturk, Y. Zhang, L. Cao, Surface-energy-assisted perfect transfer of centimeter-scale monolayer and few-layer MoS2 films onto arbitrary substrates. ACS Nano 8(11), 11522–11528 (2014)
G.H. Han, J.A. Rodríguez-Manzo, C.W. Lee, N.J. Kybert, M.B. Lerner, Z.J. Qi, E.N. Dattoli, A.M. Rappe, M. Drndic, A.T.C. Johnson, Continuous growth of hexagonal graphene and boron nitride in-plane heterostructures by atmospheric pressure chemical vapor deposition. ACS Nano 7(11), 10129–10138 (2013)
M. Wang, S.K. Jang, W.J. Jang, M. Kim, S.Y. Park, S.W. Kim, S.J. Kahng, J.Y. Choi, R.S. Ruoff, Y.J. Song, S. Lee, A platform for large-scale graphene electronics - CVD growth of single-layer graphene on CVD-grown hexagonal boron nitride. Adv. Mater. 25(19), 2746–2752 (2013)
K.H. Lee, H.J. Shin, J. Lee, I.Y. Lee, G.H. Kim, J.Y. Choi, S.W. Kim, Large-scale synthesis of high-quality hexagonal boron nitride nanosheets for large-area graphene electronics. Nano Lett. 12(2), 714–718 (2012)
K.K. Kim, A. Hsu, X. Jia, S.M. Kim, Y. Shi, M. Dresselhaust, T. Palacios, J. Kong, Synthesis and characterization of hexagonal boron nitride film as a dielectric layer for graphene devices. ACS Nano 6(10), 8583–8590 (2012)
B.C. Bayer, S. Caneva, T.J. Pennycook, J. Kotakoski, C. Mangler, S. Hofmann, J.C. Meyer, Introducing overlapping grain boundaries in chemical vapor deposited hexagonal boron nitride monolayer films. ACS Nano 11(5), 4521–4527 (2017)
T. Kobayashi, M. Bando, N. Kimura, K. Shimizu, K. Kadono, N. Umezu, K. Miyahara, S. Hayazaki, S. Nagai, Y. Mizuguchi, Y. Murakami, D. Hobara, Production of a 100-m-long high-quality graphene transparent conductive film by roll-to-roll chemical vapor deposition and transfer process. Appl. Phys. Lett. 102(2), 023112 (2013)
J. Chan, A. Venugopal, A. Pirkle, S. McDonnell, D. Hinojos, C.W. Magnuson, R.S. Ruoff, L. Colombo, R.M. Wallace, E.M. Vogel, Reducing extrinsic performance-limiting factors in graphene grown by chemical vapor deposition. ACS Nano 6(4), 3224–3229 (2012)
L. Banszerus, M. Schmitz, S. Engels, J. Dauber, M. Oellers, F. Haupt, K. Watanabe, T. Taniguchi, B. Beschoten, C. Stampfer, Ultrahigh-mobility graphene devices from chemical vapor deposition on reusable copper. Sci. Adv. 1(6), e1500222 (2015)
Y. Wang, Y. Zheng, X. Xu, E. Dubuisson, Q. Bao, J. Lu, K.P. Loh, Electrochemical delamination of CVD-grown graphene film: toward the recyclable use of copper catalyst. ACS Nano 5(12), 9927–9933 (2011)
H. Zhang, T. Cao, Y. Cheng, Preparation of few-layer graphene nanosheets by radio-frequency induction thermal plasma. Carbon 86, 38–45 (2015)
M. Tian, S. Batty, C. Shang, Synthesis of nanostructured carbons by the microwave plasma cracking of methane. Carbon 51(1), 243–248 (2013)
K.S. Kim, S.H. Hong, K.-S. Lee, W.T. Ju, Continuous synthesis of nanostructured sheetlike carbons by thermal plasma decomposition of methane. IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci. 35(2), 434–443 (2007)
R. Pristavita, J.L. Meunier, D. Berk, Carbon nano-flakes produced by an inductively coupled thermal plasma system for catalyst applications. Plasma Chem. Plasma Process. 31(2), 393–403 (2011)
A. Dato, V. Radmilovic, Z. Lee, J. Phillips, M. Frenklach, Substrate-free gas-phase synthesis of graphene sheets. Nano Lett. 8(7), 2012–2016 (2008)
V. Nicolosi, M. Chhowalla, M.G. Kanatzidis, M.S. Strano, J.N. Coleman, Liquid exfoliation of layered materials. Science 340(6139), 1226419 (2013)
M.S. Dresselhaus, G. Dresselhaus, Intercalation compounds of graphite. Adv. Phys. 30(2), 139–326 (1981)
P. Joensen, R.F. Frindt, S.R. Morrison, Single-layer MoS2. Mater. Res. Bull. 21(4), 457–461 (1986)
X. Li, G. Zhang, X. Bai, X. Sun, X. Wang, E. Wang, H. Dai, Highly conducting graphene sheets and Langmuir-Blodgett films. Nat. Nanotechnol. 3(9), 538–542 (2008)
C. Valles, C. Drummond, H. Saadaoui, C.A. Furtado, M. He, O. Roubeau, L. Ortolani, M. Monthioux, Alain Pénicaud, Solutions of negatively charged graphene sheets and ribbons. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 130(47), 15802–15804 (2008)
Z. Zeng, T. Sun, J. Zhu, X. Huang, Z. Yin, G. Lu, Z. Fan, Q. Yan, H.H. Hng, H. Zhang, An effective method for the fabrication of few-layer-thick inorganic nanosheets. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 51(36), 9052–9056 (2012)
J. Zheng, H. Zhang, S. Dong, Y. Liu, C. Tai Nai, H. Suk Shin, H. Young Jeong, B. Liu, K. Ping Loh, High yield exfoliation of two-dimensional chalcogenides using sodium naphthalenide. Nat. Commun. 5, 2995 (2014)
G. Eda, H. Yamaguchi, D. Voiry, T. Fujita, M. Chen, M. Chhowalla, Photoluminescence from chemically exfoliated MoS2. Nano Lett. 11(12), 5111–5116 (2011)
Y. Jung, Y. Zhou, J.J. Cha, Intercalation in two-dimensional transition metal chalcogenides. Inorg. Chem. Front. 3(4), 452–463 (2016)
J. Liu, H. Yang, S.G. Zhen, C.K. Poh, A. Chaurasia, J. Luo, X. Wu, E.K.L. Yeow, N.G. Sahoo, J. Lin, Z. Shen, A green approach to the synthesis of high-quality graphene oxide flakes via electrochemical exfoliation of pencil core. RSC Adv. 3(29), 11745–11750 (2013)
Z.Y. Xia, S. Pezzini, E. Treossi, G. Giambastiani, F. Corticelli, V. Morandi, A. Zanelli, V. Bellani, V. Palermo, The exfoliation of graphene in liquids by electrochemical, chemical, and sonication-assisted techniques: a nanoscale study. Adv. Funct. Mater. 23(37), 4684–4693 (2013)
K. Parvez, R. Li, S.R. Puniredd, Y. Hernandez, F. Hinkel, S. Wang, X. Feng, K. Müllen, Electrochemically exfoliated graphene as solution-processable, highly conductive electrodes for organic electronics. ACS Nano 7(4), 3598–3606 (2013)
K. Parvez, Z.-S. Wu, R. Li, X. Liu, R. Graf, X. Feng, K. Müllen, Exfoliation of graphite into graphene in aqueous solutions of inorganic salts. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 136(16), 6083–6091 (2014)
Z. Zeng, Z. Yin, X. Huang, H. Li, Q. He, G. Lu, F. Boey, H. Zhang, Single-layer semiconducting nanosheets: high-yield preparation and device fabrication. Angew. Chem. 50(47), 11093–11097 (2011)
C.-Y. Su, A.-Y. Lu, Y. Xu, F.-R. Chen, A.N. Khlobystov, L.-J. Li, High-quality thin graphene films from fast electrochemical exfoliation. ACS Nano 5(3), 2332–2339 (2011)
N. Liu, F. Luo, H. Wu, Y. Liu, C. Zhang, J. Chen, One-step ionic-liquid-assisted electrochemical synthesis of ionic-liquid-functionalized graphene sheets directly from graphite. Adv. Funct. Mater. 18, 1518–1525 (2008)
J.H. Lee, D.W. Shin, V.G. Makotchenko, A.S. Nazarov, V.E. Fedorov, Y.H. Kim, J.-Y. Choi, J.M. Kim, J.-B. Yoo, One-step exfoliation synthesis of easily soluble graphite and transparent conducting graphene sheets. Adv. Mater. 21(43), 4383–4387 (2009)
S. Stankovich, D.A. Dikin, R.D. Piner, K.A. Kohlhaas, A. Kleinhammes, Y. Jia, Y. Wu, S.T. Nguyen, R.S. Ruoff, Synthesis of graphene-based nanosheets via chemical reduction of exfoliated graphite oxide. Carbon 45(7), 1558–1565 (2007)
G. Eda, M. Chhowalla, Chemically derived graphene oxide: towards large-area thin-film electronics and optoelectronics. Adv. Mater. 22(22), 2392–2415 (2010)
C. Mattevi, G. Eda, S. Agnoli, S. Miller, K.A. Mkhoyan, O. Celik, D. Mastrogiovanni, G. Granozzi, E. Garfunkel, M. Chhowalla, Evolution of electrical, chemical, and structural properties of transparent and conducting chemically derived graphene thin films. Adv. Funct. Mater. 19(16), 2577–2583 (2009)
G. Eda, G. Fanchini, M. Chhowalla, Large-area ultrathin films of reduced graphene oxide as a transparent and flexible electronic material. Nat. Nanotechnol. 3(5), 270–274 (2008)
S. Park, R.S. Ruoff, Chemical methods for the production of graphenes. Nat. Nanotechnol. 4(4), 217–224 (2009)
K.P. Loh, Q. Bao, P.K. Ang, J. Yang, The chemistry of graphene. J. Mater. Chem. 20(12), 2277 (2010)
D.R. Dreyer, S. Park, C.W. Bielawski, R.S. Ruoff, The chemistry of graphene oxide. Chem. Soc. Rev. 39(1), 228–240 (2010)
W.S. Hummers Jr., R.E. Offeman, Preparation of graphitic oxide. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 80(6), 1339 (1958)
A. Buchsteiner, A. Lerf, J. Pieper, Water dynamics in graphite oxide investigated with neutron scattering. J. Phys. Chem. B 110(45), 22328–22338 (2006)
Y. Si, E.T. Samulski, Synthesis of water soluble graphene. Nano Lett. 8(6), 1679–1682 (2008)
S. Wang, P.K. Ang, Z. Wang, A.L.L. Tang, J.T.L. Thong, K.P. Loh, High mobility, printable, and solution-processed graphene electronics. Nano Lett. 10(1), 92–98 (2010)
L.T. Le, M.H. Ervin, H. Qiu, B.E. Fuchs, W.Y. Lee, Graphene supercapacitor electrodes fabricated by inkjet printing and thermal reduction of graphene oxide. Electrochem. Commun. 13(4), 355–358 (2011)
J.D. Fowler, M.J. Allen, V.C. Tung, Y. Yang, R.B. Kaner, B.H. Weiller, Practical chemical sensors from chemically derived graphene. ACS Nano 3(2), 301–306 (2009)
J. Wang, M. Liang, Y. Fang, T. Qiu, J. Zhang, L. Zhi, Rod-coating: towards large-area fabrication of uniform reduced graphene oxide films for flexible touch screens. Adv. Mater. 24(21), 2874–2878 (2012)
Y. Yang, Z. Liu, Z. Yin, Z. Du, L. Xie, M. Yi, J. Liu, W. Huang, Rod-coating all-solution fabrication of double functional graphene oxide films for flexible alternating current (AC)-driven light-emitting diodes. RSC Adv. 4(98), 55671–55676 (2014)
S. Stankovich, D.A. Dikin, G.H.B. Dommett, K.M. Kohlhaas, E.J. Zimney, E.A. Stach, R.D. Piner, S.T. Nguyen, R.S. Ruoff, Graphene-based composite materials. Nature 442(7100), 282–286 (2006)
J. Xu, J. Liu, S. Wu, Q.-H. Yang, P. Wang, Graphene oxide mode-locked femtosecond erbium-doped fiber lasers. Opt. Express 20(14), 15474–15480 (2012)
Y.J. Noh, H.-I. Joh, J. Yu, S.H. Hwang, S. Lee, C.H. Lee, S.Y. Kim, J.R. Youn, Ultra-high dispersion of graphene in polymer composite via solvent free fabrication and functionalization. Sci. Rep. 5, 9141 (2015)
R. Sengupta, M. Bhattacharya, S. Bandyopadhyay, A.K. Bhowmick, A review on the mechanical and electrical properties of graphite and modified graphite reinforced polymer composites. Prog. Polym. Sci. 36(5), 638–670 (2011)
S. Park, J. An, J.R. Potts, A. Velamakanni, S. Murali, R.S. Ruoff, Hydrazine-reduction of graphite- and graphene oxide. Carbon 49(9), 3019–3023 (2011)
S. Pei, H.M. Cheng, The reduction of graphene oxide. Carbon 50(9), 3210–3228 (2012)
Y. Zhou, Q. Bao, L.A.L. Tang, Y. Zhong, K.P. Loh, Hydrothermal dehydration for the “green” reduction of exfoliated graphene oxide to graphene and demonstration of tunable optical limiting properties. Chem. Mater. 21(13), 2950–2956 (2009)
A. Bagri, C. Mattevi, M. Acik, Y.J. Chabal, M. Chhowalla, V.B. Shenoy, Structural evolution during the reduction of chemically derived graphene oxide. Nat. Chem. 2(7), 581–587 (2010)
Y.B. Tan, J.-M. Lee, Graphene for supercapacitor applications. J. Mater. Chem. A 1(47), 14814 (2013)
N. Yang, J. Zhai, D. Wang, Y. Chen, L. Jiang, Two-dimensional graphene bridges enhanced photoinduced charge transport in dye-sensitized solar cells. ACS Nano 4(2), 887–894 (2010)
K.P. Loh, Q. Bao, G. Eda, M. Chhowalla, Graphene oxide as a chemically tunable platform for optical applications. Nat. Chem. 2(12), 1015–1024 (2010)
K.K.H. De Silva, H.-H. Huang, R.K. Joshi, M. Yoshimura, Chemical reduction of graphene oxide using green reductants. Carbon 119, 190–199 (2017)
L.G. Guex, B. Sacchi, K.F. Peuvot, R.L. Andersson, A.M. Pourrahimi, V. Ström, S. Farris, R.T. Olsson, Experimental review: chemical reduction of graphene oxide (GO) to reduced graphene oxide (rGO) by aqueous chemistry. Nanoscale 9(27), 9562–9571 (2017)
F.J. Tölle, M. Fabritius, R. Mülhaupt, Emulsifier-free graphene dispersions with high graphene content for printed electronics and freestanding graphene films. Adv. Funct. Mater. 22, 1136–1144 (2012)
T. Hasan, V. Scardaci, P. Tan, A.G. Rozhin, W.I. Milne, A.C. Ferrari, Stabilization and “debundling” of single-wall carbon nanotube dispersions in N-Methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) by polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP). J. Phys. Chem. C 111(34), 12594–12602 (2007)
T. Hasan, Z. Sun, F. Wang, F. Bonaccorso, P.H. Tan, A.G. Rozhin, A.C. Ferrari, Nanotube-polymer composites for ultrafast photonics. Adv. Mater. 21(38), 3874–3899 (2009)
Y. Hernandez, V. Nicolosi, M. Lotya, F.M. Blighe, Z. Sun, S. De, I.T. McGovern, B. Holland, M. Byrne, Y.K. Gun’Ko, J.J. Boland, P. Niraj, G. Duesberg, S. Krishnamurthy, R. Goodhue, J. Hutchison, V. Scardaci, A.C. Ferrari, J.N. Coleman, High-yield production of graphene by liquid-phase exfoliation of graphite. Nat. Nanotechnol. 3(9), 563–568 (2008)
J.N. Coleman, Liquid-phase exfoliation of nanotubes and graphene. Adv. Funct. Mater. 19(23), 3680–3695 (2009)
F. Bonaccorso, A. Bartolotta, J.N. Coleman, C. Backes, 2D-crystal-based functional inks. Adv. Mater. 28(29), 6136–6166 (2016)
J.N. Coleman, Liquid exfoliation of defect-free graphene. Acc. Chem. Res. 46(1), 14–22 (2013)
J.N. Coleman, M. Lotya, A. O’Neill, S.D. Bergin, P.J. King, U. Khan, K. Young, A. Gaucher, S. De, R.J. Smith, I.V. Shvets, S.K. Arora, G. Stanton, H.-Y. Kim, K. Lee, G.T. Kim, G.S. Duesberg, T. Hallam, J.J. Boland, J.J. Wang, J.F. Donegan, J.C. Grunlan, G. Moriarty, A. Shmeliov, R.J. Nicholls, J.M. Perkins, E.M. Grieveson, K. Theuwissen, D.W. McComb, P.D. Nellist, V. Nicolosi, Two-dimensional nanosheets produced by liquid exfoliation of layered materials. Science 331(6017), 568–571 (2011)
D. Hanlon, C. Backes, E. Doherty, C.S. Cucinotta, N.C. Berner, C. Boland, K. Lee, A. Harvey, P. Lynch, Z. Gholamvand, S. Zhang, K. Wang, G. Moynihan, A. Pokle, Q.M. Ramasse, N. McEvoy, W.J. Blau, J. Wang, G. Abellan, F. Hauke, A. Hirsch, S. Sanvito, D.D. O’Regan, G.S. Duesberg, V. Nicolosi, J.N. Coleman, Liquid exfoliation of solvent-stabilized few-layer black phosphorus for applications beyond electronics. Nat. Commun. 6, 8563 (2015)
T. Hasan, F. Torrisi, Z. Sun, D. Popa, V. Nicolosi, G. Privitera, F. Bonaccorso, A.C. Ferrari, Solution-phase exfoliation of graphite for ultrafast photonics. Phys. Status Solidi B 247(11–12), 2953–2957 (2010)
S. Santra, G. Hu, R.C.T. Howe, A. De Luca, S.Z. Ali, F. Udrea, J.W. Gardner, S.K. Ray, P.K. Guha, T. Hasan, CMOS integration of inkjet-printed graphene for humidity sensing. Sci. Rep. 5, 17374 (2015)
R.C.T. Howe, G. Hu, Z. Yang, T. Hasan, Functional inks of graphene, metal dichalcogenides and black phosphorus for photonics and (opto)electronics. Proc. SPIE 9553, 95530R (2015)
Z. Sun, T. Hasan, F. Torrisi, D. Popa, G. Privitera, F. Wang, F. Bonaccorso, D.M. Basko, A.C. Ferrari, Graphene mode-locked ultrafast laser. ACS Nano 4(2), 803–810 (2010)
A. Harvey, J.B. Boland, I. Godwin, A.G. Kelly, B.M. Szydłowska, G. Murtaza, A. Thomas, D.J. Lewis, P. O’Brien, J.N. Coleman, Exploring the versatility of liquid phase exfoliation: producing 2D nanosheets from talcum powder, cat litter and beach sand. 2D Mater. 4(2), 25054 (2017)
J.M. Hughes, D. Aherne, J.N. Coleman, Generalizing solubility parameter theory to apply to one- and two-dimensional solutes and to incorporate dipolar interactions. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 127(6), 4483–4491 (2013)
K.R. Paton, E. Varrla, C. Backes, R.J. Smith, U. Khan, A. O’Neill, C. Boland, M. Lotya, O.M. Istrate, P. King, T. Higgins, S. Barwich, P. May, P. Puczkarski, I. Ahmed, M. Moebius, H. Pettersson, E. Long, J. Coelho, S.E. O’Brien, E.K. McGuire, B.M. Sanchez, G.S. Duesberg, N. McEvoy, T.J. Pennycook, C. Downing, A. Crossley, V. Nicolosi, J.N. Coleman, Scalable production of large quantities of defect-free few-layer graphene by shear exfoliation in liquids. Nat. Mater. 13(6), 624–630 (2014)
E. Varrla, C. Backes, K.R. Paton, A. Harvey, Z. Gholamvand, J. McCauley, J.N. Coleman, Large-scale production of size-controlled MoS2 nanosheets by shear exfoliation. Chem. Mater. 27(3), 1129–1139 (2015)
E. Varrla, K.R. Paton, C. Backes, A. Harvey, R.J. Smith, J. McCauley, J.N. Coleman, Turbulence-assisted shear exfoliation of graphene using household detergent and a kitchen blender. Nanoscale 6(20), 11810–11819 (2014)
J. Shang, F. Xue, E. Ding, The facile fabrication of few-layer graphene and graphite nanosheets by high pressure homogenization. Chem. Commun. 51(87), 15811–15814 (2015)
F. Xue, E. Ding, J. Shang, Efficient exfoliation of molybdenum disulphide nanosheets by a high-pressure homogeniser. Micro Nano Lett. 10(10), 589–591 (2015)
T.J. Nacken, C. Damm, J. Walter, A. Rüger, W. Peukert, Delamination of graphite in a high pressure homogenizer. RSC Adv. 5(71), 57328–57338 (2015)
P.G. Karagiannidis, S.A. Hodge, L. Lombardi, F. Tomarchio, N. Decorde, S. Milana, I. Goykhman, Y. Su, S.V. Mesite, D.N. Johnstone, R.K. Leary, P.A. Midgley, N.M. Pugno, F. Torrisi, A.C. Ferrari, Microfluidization of graphite and formulation of graphene-based conductive inks. ACS Nano 11(3), 2742–2755 (2017)
M.A. Ibrahem, T.-W. Lan, J.K. Huang, Y.-Y. Chen, K.-H. Wei, L.-J. Li, C.W. Chu. High quantity and quality few-layers transition metal disulfide nanosheets from wet-milling exfoliation. RSC Adv. 3(32), 13193 (2013)
W. Zhao, M. Fang, F. Wu, H. Wu, L. Wang, G. Chen, Preparation of graphene by exfoliation of graphite using wet ball milling. J. Mater. Chem. 20(28), 5817 (2010)
Y. Yao, Z. Lin, Z. Li, X. Song, K.-S. Moon, C.-P. Wong, Large-scale production of two-dimensional nanosheets. J. Mater. Chem. 22(27), 13494 (2012)
L.H. Li, Y. Chen, G. Behan, H. Zhang, M. Petravic, A.M. Glushenkov, Large-scale mechanical peeling of boron nitride nanosheets by low-energy ball milling. J. Mater. Chem. 21(32), 11862 (2011)
T.J. Mason, J.P. Lorimer, Applied Sonochemistry (Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2002)
S.Y. Tang, P. Shridharan, M. Sivakumar, Impact of process parameters in the generation of novel aspirin nanoemulsions - comparative studies between ultrasound cavitation and microfluidizer. Ultrason. Sonochem. 20(1), 485–497 (2013)
A. Posch, 2D PAGE: Sample Preparation and Fractionation (Humana Press, Clifton, 2008)
T. Panagiotou, S.V. Mesite, J.M. Bernard, K.J. Chomistek, R.J. Fisher, Production of polymer nanosuspensions using microfluidizer processor based technologies, in NSTI-Nanotech 2008, vol. 1 (2008), pp. 688–691
T. Lajunen, K. Hisazumi, T. Kanazawa, H. Okada, Y. Seta, M. Yliperttula, A. Urtti, Y. Takashima, Topical drug delivery to retinal pigment epithelium with microfluidizer produced small liposomes. Eur. J. Pharm. Sci. 62, 23–32 (2014)
S.M. Jafari, Y. He, B. Bhandari, Production of sub-micron emulsions by ultrasound and microfluidization techniques. J. Food Eng. 82(4), 478–488 (2007)
D. Lee, B. Lee, K.H. Park, H.J. Ryu, S. Jeon, S.H. Hong, Scalable exfoliation process for highly soluble boron nitride nanoplatelets by hydroxide-assisted ball milling. Nano Lett. 15(2), 1238–1244 (2015)
T. Hasan, F. Torrisi, Z. Sun, D. Popa, V. Nicolosi, G. Privitera, F. Bonaccorso, A.C. Ferrari, Solution-phase exfoliation of graphite for ultrafast photonics. Phys. Status Solidi 247(11), 2953–2957 (2010)
Y. Hernandez, M. Lotya, D. Rickard, S.D. Bergin, J.N. Coleman, Measurement of multicomponent solubility parameters for graphene facilitates solvent discovery. Langmuir 26(5), 3208–3213 (2010)
C.M. Hansen, Hansen Solubility Parameters: A User’s Handbook (CRC Press, West Palm Beach, 2007)
A. Ciesielski, P. Samorì, Graphene via sonication assisted liquid-phase exfoliation. Chem. Soc. Rev. 43(1), 381–398 (2014)
C.L. Yaws, The Yaws Handbook of Physical Properties for Hydrocarbons and Chemicals, 2nd edn. (Elsevier Science, New York , 2015)
M. Yi, Z. Shen, S. Ma, X. Zhang, A mixed-solvent strategy for facile and green preparation of graphene by liquid-phase exfoliation of graphite. J. Nanoparticle Res. 14(8), 1003 (2012)
K.-G. Zhou, N.-N. Mao, H.-X. Wang, Y. Peng, H.-L. Zhang, A mixed-solvent strategy for efficient exfoliation of inorganic graphene analogues. Angew. Chem. 50(46), 10839–10842 (2011)
R.C.T. Howe, F. Torrisi, F. Tomarchio, S. Mignuzzi, A.C. Ferrari, T. Hasan, Large-scale exfoliation of molybdenum disulphide in solvent mixtures, in ImagineNano (2013)
E.B. Secor, P.L. Prabhumirashi, K. Puntambekar, M.L. Geier, M.C. Hersam, Inkjet printing of high conductivity, flexible graphene patterns. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 4(8), 1347–1351 (2013)
E.B. Secor, B.Y. Ahn, T.Z. Gao, J.A. Lewis, M.C. Hersam, Rapid and versatile photonic annealing of graphene inks for flexible printed electronics. Adv. Mater. 27(42), 6683–6688 (2015)
D. Dodoo-Arhin, R.C.T. Howe, G. Hu, Y. Zhang, P. Hiralal, A. Bello, G. Amaratunga, T. Hasan, Inkjet-printed graphene electrodes for dye-sensitized solar cells. Carbon 105, 33–41 (2016)
F. Bonaccorso, Z. Sun, Solution processing of graphene, topological insulators and other 2D crystals for ultrafast photonics. Opt. Mater. Express 4(1), 63–78 (2014)
H.-J. Butt, K. Graff, M. Kappl, Physics and Chemistry of Interfaces, 3rd edn. (Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2013)
M.J. Rosen, J.T. Kunjappu, Surfactants and Interfacial Phenomena, 4th edn. (Wiley, Hoboken, 2012)
R.J. Smith, P.J. King, M. Lotya, C. Wirtz, U. Khan, S. De, A. O’Neill, G.S. Duesberg, J.C. Grunlan, G. Moriarty, J. Chen, J. Wang, A.I. Minett, V. Nicolosi, J.N. Coleman, Large-scale exfoliation of inorganic layered compounds in aqueous surfactant solutions. Adv. Mater. 23(34), 3944–3948 (2011)
R.C.T. Howe, R.I. Woodward, G. Hu, Z. Yang, E.J.R. Kelleher, T. Hasan, Surfactant-aided exfoliation of molybdenum disulfide for ultrafast pulse generation through edge-state saturable absorption. Phys. Status Solidi 253(5), 911–917 (2016)
P. Ramalingam, S.T. Pusuluri, S. Periasamy, R. Veerabahu, J. Kulandaivel, Role of deoxy group on the high concentration of graphene in surfactant/water media. RSC Adv. 3, 2369 (2013)
M. Lotya, Y. Hernandez, P.J. King, R.J. Smith, V. Nicolosi, L.S. Karlsson, F.M. Blighe, S. De, Z. Wang, I.T. McGovern, G.S. Duesberg, J.N. Coleman, Liquid phase production of graphene by exfoliation of graphite in surfactant/water solutions. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 131(10), 3611–3620 (2009)
M.S. Kang, K.T. Kim, J.U. Lee, W.H. Jo, Direct exfoliation of graphite using a non-ionic polymer surfactant for fabrication of transparent and conductive graphene films. J. Mater. Chem. C 1(9), 1870 (2013)
A.A. Green, M.C. Hersam, Solution phase production of graphene with controlled thickness via density differentiation. Nano Lett. 9(12), 4031–4036 (2009)
M.S. Arnold, S.I. Stupp, M.C. Hersam, Enrichment of single-walled carbon nanotubes by diameter in density gradients. Nano Lett. 5(4), 713–718 (2005)
G. Hu, T. Albrow-Owen, X. Jin, A. Ali, G. Hu, C.T. Richard, Z. Yang, X. Zhu, R. Woodward, T.-C. Wu, H. Jussila, P. Tan, Z. Sun, E. Kelleher, Y. Xu, M. Zhang, Black phosphorus ink formulation for inkjet printing of optoelectronics and photonics. Nat. Commun. 8, 278 (2017)
U. Khan, H. Porwal, A. O’Neill, K. Nawaz, P. May, J.N. Coleman, Solvent-exfoliated graphene at extremely high concentration. Langmuir 27(15), 9077–9082 (2011)
J.N. Coleman, Liquid exfoliation of defect-free graphene. Acc. Chem. Res. 46(1), 14–22 (2013)
A. Ciesielski, P. Samor, Graphene via sonication assisted liquid-phase exfoliation. Chem. Soc. Rev. 43(1), 381–398 (2014)
J.N. Coleman, Liquid-phase exfoliation of nanotubes and graphene. Adv. Funct. Mater. 19(23), 3680–3695 (2009)
R. Marchesini, A. Bertoni, S. Andreola, E. Melloni, A.E. Sichirollo, Extinction and absorption coefficients and scattering phase functions of human tissues in vitro. Appl. Opt. 28(12), 2318 (1989)
L. Yang, Materials Characterization: Introduction to Microscopic and Spectroscopic Methods, 2nd edn. (Wiley, Hoboken, 2009)
C. Backes, R.J. Smith, N. McEvoy, N.C. Berner, D. McCloskey, H.C. Nerl, A. O’Neill, P.J. King, T. Higgins, D. Hanlon, N. Scheuschner, J. Maultzsch, L. Houben, G.S. Duesberg, J.F. Donegan, V. Nicolosi, J.N. Coleman, Edge and confinement effects allow in situ measurement of size and thickness of liquid-exfoliated nanosheets. Nat. Commun. 5, 4576 (2014)
K.S. Aneja, S. Bohm, A.S. Khanna, H.L. Mallika Bohm, Graphene based anticorrosive coatings for Cr(VI) replacement. Nanoscale 7(42), 17879–17888 (2015)
R. Erni, M.D. Rossell, C. Kisielowski, Ulrich Dahmen, Atomic-resolution imaging with a Sub-50-pm electron probe. Phys. Rev. Lett. 102(9), 096101 (2009)
N. Wang, Q. Xu, S. Xu, Y. Qi, M. Chen, H. Li, High-efficiency exfoliation of layered materials into 2D nanosheets in switchable CO2/Surfactant/H2O system. Sci. Rep. 5, 16764 (2015)
F. Torrisi, T. Hasan, W. Wu, Z. Sun, A. Lombardo, T.S. Kulmala, G.-W. Hsieh, S. Jung, F. Bonaccorso, P.J. Paul, D. Chu, A.C. Ferrari, Inkjet-printed graphene electronics. ACS Nano 6(4), 2992–3006 (2012)***
J.C. Meyer, A.K. Geim, M.I. Katsnelson, K.S. Novoselov, D. Obergfell, S. Roth, C. Girit, A. Zettl, On the roughness of single- and bi-layer graphene membranes. Solid State Commun. 143(1–2), 101–109 (2007)
J.C. Meyer, A.K. Geim, M.I. Katsnelson, K.S. Novoselov, T.J. Booth, S. Roth, The structure of suspended graphene sheets. Nature 446(7131), 60–63 (2007)
A.C. Ferrari, J.C. Meyer, V. Scardaci, C. Casiraghi, M. Lazzeri, F. Mauri, S. Piscanec, D. Jiang, K.S. Novoselov, S. Roth, A.K. Geim, Raman spectrum of graphene and graphene layers. Phys. Rev. Lett. 97(18), 187401 (2006)
S. Zhang, J. Yang, R. Xu, F. Wang, W. Li, M. Ghufran, Y.-W. Zhang, Z. Yu, G. Zhang, Q. Qin, Y. Lu, Extraordinary photoluminescence and strong temperature/angle-dependent Raman responses in few-layer phosphorene. ACS Nano 8(9), 9590–9596 (2014)
H. Li, Q. Zhang, C.C.R. Yap, B.K. Tay, T.H.T. Edwin, A. Olivier, D. Baillargeat, From bulk to monolayer MoS2: evolution of Raman scattering. Adv. Funct. Mater. 22(7), 1385–1390 (2012)
C. Backes, K.R. Paton, D. Hanlon, S. Yuan, M.I. Katsnelson, J. Houston, R.J. Smith, D. McCloskey, J.F. Donegan, J.N. Coleman, Spectroscopic metrics allow in situ measurement of mean size and thickness of liquid-exfoliated few-layer graphene nanosheets. Nanoscale 8(7), 4311–4323 (2016)
A.C Ferrari, D.M. Basko, Raman spectroscopy as a versatile tool for studying the properties of graphene. Nat. Nanotechnol. 8(4), 235–246 (2013)
K.N. Kudin, B. Ozbas, H.C. Schniepp, R.K. Prud’homme, I.A. Aksay, R. Car, Raman spectra of graphite oxide and functionalized graphene sheets. Nano Lett. 8(1), 36–41 (2008)
X. Zhang, X.-F. Qiao, W. Shi, J.-B. Wu, D.-S. Jiang, P.-H. Tan, Phonon and Raman scattering of two-dimensional transition metal dichalcogenides from monolayer, multilayer to bulk material. Chem. Soc. Rev. 44(9), 2757–2785 (2015)
C. Lee, H. Yan, L.E. Brus, T.F. Heinz, J. Hone, S. Ryu, Anomalous lattice vibrations of single- and few-layer MoS2. ACS Nano 4(5), 2695–2700 (2010)
Z. Guo, H. Zhang, S. Lu, Z. Wang, S. Tang, J. Shao, Z. Sun, H. Xie, H. Wang, X.-F. Yu, P.K. Chu, From black phosphorus to phosphorene: basic solvent exfoliation, evolution of Raman scattering, and applications to ultrafast photonics. Adv. Funct. Mater. 25(45), 6996–7002 (2015)
L.G. Cançado, A. Jorio, E.H.M. Ferreira, F. Stavale, C.A. Achete, R.B. Capaz, M.V.O. Moutinho, A. Lombardo, T.S. Kulmala, A.C. Ferrari, Quantifying defects in graphene via Raman spectroscopy at different excitation energies. Nano Lett. 11(8), 3190–3196 (2011)
A.C. Ferrari, Raman spectroscopy of graphene and graphite: disorder, electron-phonon coupling, doping and nonadiabatic effects. Solid State Commun. 143(1–2), 47–57 (2007)
B. Chakraborty, A. Bera, D.V.S. Muthu, S. Bhowmick, U.V. Waghmare, A.K. Sood, Symmetry-dependent phonon renormalization in monolayer MoS2 transistor. Phys. Rev. B: Condens. Matter Mater. Phys. 85(16), 161403(r) (2012)
Y. Liu, Z. Liu, W.S. Lew, Q.J. Wang, Temperature dependence of the electrical transport properties in few-layer graphene interconnects. Nanoscale Res. Lett. 8(1), 335 (2013)
D. Graf, F. Molitor, K. Ensslin, C. Stampfer, A. Jungen, C. Hierold, L. Wirtz, Spatially resolved Raman spectroscopy of single- and few-layer graphene. Nano Lett. 7(2), 238–242 (2007)
A.C. Ferrari, J.C. Meyer, V. Scardaci, C. Casiraghi, M. Lazzeri, F. Mauri, S. Piscanec, D. Jiang, K.S. Novoselov, S. Roth, A.K. Geim, Raman spectrum of graphene and graphene layers. Phys. Rev. Lett. 97(18), 187401 (2006)
X.-L. Li, W.-P. Han, J.-B. Wu, X.-F. Qiao, J. Zhang, P.-H. Tan, Layer-number dependent optical properties of 2D materials and their application for thickness determination. Adv. Funct. Mater. 27(19), 1604468 (2017)
F. Torrisi, T. Hasan, W.P. Wu, Z.P. Sun, A. Lombardo, T.S. Kulmala, G.W. Hsieh, S.J. Jung, F. Bonaccorso, P.J. Paul, D.P. Chu, A.C. Ferrari, Inkjet-printed graphene electronics. ACS Nano 6(4), 2992–3006 (2012)
C. Casiraghi, Raman spectroscopy of graphene edges. Nano Lett. 9(4), 1433–1441 (2009)
U. Khan, A. O’Neill, H. Porwal, P. May, K. Nawaz, J.N. Coleman, Size selection of dispersed, exfoliated graphene flakes by controlled centrifugation. Carbon 50(2), 470–475 (2012)
W. Zhao, Z. Ghorannevis, K.K. Amara, J.R. Pang, Lattice dynamics in mono-and few-layer sheets of WS2 and WSe2. Nanoscale 5(20), 9677–9683 (2013)
X. Zhang, W.P. Han, J.B. Wu, S. Milana, Y. Lu, Q.Q. Li, A.C. Ferrari, P.H. Tan, Raman spectroscopy of shear and layer breathing modes in multilayer MoS2. Phys. Rev. B: Condens. Matter Mater. Phys. 87(11), 115413 (2013)
M. Zhang, R.C.T. Howe, R.I. Woodward, E.J.R. Kelleher, F. Torrisi, G. Hu, S.V. Popov, J.R. Taylor, T. Hasan, Solution processed MoS2-PVA composite for sub-bandgap mode-locking of a wideband tunable ultrafast Er:fiber laser. Nano Res. 8(5), 1522–1534 (2015)
L. Liang, V. Meunier, First-principles Raman spectra of MoS2, WS2 and their heterostructures. Nanoscale 6(10), 5394–5401 (2014)
D. Li, H. Jussila, L. Karvonen, G. Ye, H. Lipsanen, X. Chen, Z. Sun, Polarization and thickness dependent absorption properties of black phosphorus: new saturable absorber for ultrafast pulse generation. Sci. Rep. 5, 15899 (2015)
A. Castellanos-Gomez, L. Vicarelli, E. Prada, J.O. Island, K.L. Narasimha-Acharya, S.I. Blanter, D.J. Groenendijk, M. Buscema, G.A. Steele, J.V. Alvarez, H.W. Zandbergen, J.J. Palacios, H.S.J. van der Zant, Isolation and characterization of few-layer black phosphorus. 2D Mater. 1(2), 025001 (2014)
X. Wang, A.M. Jones, K.L. Seyler, V. Tran, Y. Jia, H. Zhao, H. Wang, L. Yang, X. Xu, F. Xia, Highly anisotropic and robust excitons in monolayer black phosphorus. Nat. Nanotechnol. 10(6), 517–521 (2015)
H. Yang, H. Jussila, A. Autere, H.-P. Komsa, G. Ye, X. Chen, T. Hasan, Z. Sun, Optical waveplates based on birefringence of anisotropic two-dimensional layered materials. ACS Photon. 4(12), 3023–3030 (2017)
R.V. Gorbachev, I. Riaz, R.R. Nair, R. Jalil, L. Britnell, B.D. Belle, E.W. Hill, K.S. Novoselov, K. Watanabe, T. Taniguchi, A.K. Geim, P. Blake, Hunting for monolayer boron nitride: optical and Raman signatures. Small 7(4), 465–468 (2011)
M. Acik, G. Lee, C. Mattevi, M. Chhowalla, K. Cho, Y.J. Chabal, Unusual infrared-absorption mechanism in thermally reduced graphene oxide. Nat. Mater. 9(10), 840–845 (2010)
S. Abdolhosseinzadeh, H. Asgharzadeh, H. Seop Kim, Fast and fully-scalable synthesis of reduced graphene oxide. Sci. Rep. 5, 10160 (2015)
S.N. Alam, N. Sharma, L. Kumar, Synthesis of graphene oxide (GO) by modified Hummers method and its thermal reduction to obtain reduced graphene oxide (rGO). J. Graphene 6(1), 73348 (2017)
A. Ganguly, S. Sharma, P. Papakonstantinou, J. Hamilton, Probing the thermal deoxygenation of graphene oxide using high-resolution in situ X-ray-based spectroscopies. J. Phys. Chem. C 115(34), 17009–17019 (2011)
S. Yumitori, Correlation of C1s chemical state intensities with the O1s intensity in the XPS analysis of anodically oxidized glass-like carbon samples. J. Mater. Sci. 35(1), 139–146 (2000)
K.P. Dhakal, D.L. Duong, J. Lee, H. Nam, M. Kim, M. Kan, Y.H. Lee, J. Kim, Confocal absorption spectral imaging of MoS2: optical transitions depending on the atomic thickness of intrinsic and chemically doped MoS2. Nanoscale 6(21), 13028–13035 (2014)
G. Eda, Y.Y. Lin, C. Mattevi, H. Yamaguchi, H.A. Chen, I.S. Chen, C.W. Chen, M. Chhowalla, Blue photoluminescence from chemically derived graphene oxide. Adv. Mater. 22(4), 505–509 (2010)
T. Gokus, R.R. Nair, A. Bonetti, M. Böhmler, A. Lombardo, K.S. Novoselov, A.K. Geim, A.C. Ferrari, A. Hartschuh, Making graphene luminescent by oxygen plasma treatment. ACS Nano 3(12), 3963–3968 (2009)
C. Kittel, Introduction to Solid State Physics, 8th edn. (Wiley, New York, 2004)
F.T. Johra, J.W. Lee, W.G. Jung, Facile and safe graphene preparation on solution based platform. J. Ind. Eng. Chem. 20(5), 2883–2887 (2014)
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Ng, L.W.T. et al. (2019). 2D Material Production Methods. In: Printing of Graphene and Related 2D Materials. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91572-2_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91572-2_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-91571-5
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-91572-2
eBook Packages: EngineeringEngineering (R0)