Abstract
The atmosphere is governed by continuum mechanics and thermodynamics yet simultaneously obeys statistical turbulence laws. Up until its deterministic predictability limit (τ w ≈ 10 days), only general circulation models (GCMs) have been used for prediction; the turbulent laws being still too difficult to exploit. However, beyond τ w —in macroweather—the GCMs effectively become stochastic with internal variability fluctuating about the model—not the real world—climate and their predictions are poor. In contrast, the turbulent macroweather laws become advantageously notable due to (a) low macroweather intermittency that allows for a Gaussian approximation, and (b) thanks to a statistical space-time factorization symmetry that (for predictions) allows much decoupling of the strongly correlated spatial degrees of freedom. The laws imply new stochastic predictability limits. We show that pure macroweather—such as in GCMs without external forcings (control runs)—can be forecast nearly to these limits by the ScaLIng Macroweather Model (SLIMM) that exploits huge system memory that forces the forecasts to converge to the real world climate.
To apply SLIMM to the real world requires pre-processing to take into account anthropogenic and other low frequency external forcings. We compare the overall Stochastic Seasonal to Interannual Prediction System (StocSIPS, operational since April 2016) with a classical GCM (CanSIPS) showing that StocSIPS is superior for forecasts 2 months and further in the future, particularly over land. In addition, the relative advantage of StocSIPS increases with forecast lead time.
In this chapter we review the science behind StocSIPS and give some details of its implementation and we evaluate its skill both absolute and relative to CanSIPS.
References
Baillie, R.T., and S.-K. Chung. 2002. Modeling and forecasting from trend-stationary long memory models with applications to climatology. International Journal of Forecasting 18: 215–226.
Biagini, F., Y. Hu, B. Øksendal, and T. Zhang. 2008. Stochastic calculus for fractional Brownian motion and applications. London: Springer-Verlag.
Chen, W., S. Lovejoy, and J.P. Muller. 2016. Mars’ atmosphere: The sister planet, our statistical twin. Journal of Geophysical Research—Atmospheres 121: 11968–11988. doi:10.1002/2016JD025211.
Compo, G.P., et al. 2011. The twentieth century reanalysis project. Quarterly J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 137: 1–28. doi:10.1002/qj.776.
Del Rio Amador, L. 2017. The stochastic seasonal to interannual prediction system. Montreal: McGill University.
Garcıa-Serrano, J., and F. J. Doblas-Reyes (2012), On the assessment of near-surface global temperature and North Atlantic multi-decadal variability in the ENSEMBLES decadal hindcast, Climate Dynamics, 39, 2025–2040 doi: 10.1007/s00382-012-1413-1.
Gripenberg, G., and I. Norros. 1996. On the Prediction of Fractional Brownian Motion. Journal of Applied Probability 33: 400–410.
Guemas, V., F.J. Doblas-Reyes, I. Andreu-Burillo, and M. Asif. 2013. Retrospective prediction of the global warming slowdown in the past decade. Nature Climate Change 3: 649–653.
Hasselmann, K. 1976. Stochastic climate models, part I: Theory. Tellus 28: 473–485.
Hébert, R., and S. Lovejoy. 2015. The runaway Green’s function effect: Interactive comment on “Global warming projections derived from an observation-based minimal model” by K. Rypdal. Earth System Dynamics Discovery 6: C944–C953.
Hebert, R., S. Lovejoy, and A. de Vernal. 2017. A scaling model for the forced climate variability in the anthropocene. Climate Dynamics. (in preparation).
Hirchoren, G.A., and D.S. Arantes. 1998. Predictors for the discrete time fractional Gaussian processes. In Telecommunications symposium. ITS '98 proceedings, SBT/IEEE international, 49–53. Sao Paulo: IEEE.
Hirchoren, G.A., and C.E. D’attellis. 1998. Estimation of fractal signals, using wavelets and filter banks. IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing 46 (6): 1624–1630.
Kolesnikov, V.N., and A.S. Monin. 1965. Spectra of meteorological field fluctuations. Izvestiya, Atmospheric and Oceanic Physics 1: 653–669.
Lean, J.L., and D.H. Rind. 2008. How natural and anthropogenic influences alter global and regional surface temperatures: 1889 to 2006. Geophysical Research Letters 35: L18701. doi:10.1029/2008GL034864.
Lilley, M., S. Lovejoy, D. Schertzer, K.B. Strawbridge, and A. Radkevitch. 2008. Scaling turbulent atmospheric stratification. Part II: Empirical study of the the stratification of the intermittency. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 134: 301–315. doi:10.1002/qj.1202.
Lovejoy, S. 2014a. Scaling fluctuation analysis and statistical hypothesis testing of anthropogenic warming. Climate Dynamics 42: 2339–2351. doi:10.1007/s00382-014-2128-2.
———. 2014b. Return periods of global climate fluctuations and the pause. Geophysical Research Letters 41: 4704–4710. doi:10.1002/2014GL060478.
———. 2015a. A voyage through scales, a missing quadrillion and why the climate is not what you expect. Climate Dynamics 44: 3187–3210. doi:10.1007/s00382-014-2324-0.
———. 2015b. Using scaling for macroweather forecasting including the pause. Geophysical Research Letters 42: 7148–7155. doi:10.1002/2015GL065665.
———. 2017. How accurately do we know the temperature of the surface of the earth? Climate Dynamics. (in press).
Lovejoy, S., and M.I.P. de Lima. 2015. The joint space-time statistics of macroweather precipitation, space-time statistical factorization and macroweather models. Chaos 25: 075410. doi:10.1063/1.4927223.
Lovejoy, S., and D. Schertzer. 1986. Scale invariance in climatological temperatures and the local spectral plateau. Annales Geophysicae 4B: 401–410.
———. 2007. Scale, scaling and multifractals in geophysics: Twenty years on. In Nonlinear dynamics in geophysics, ed. J.E.A.A. Tsonis. New York, NY: Elsevier.
———. 2010. Towards a new synthesis for atmospheric dynamics: Space-time cascades. Atmospheric Research 96: 1–52. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2010.01.004.
———. 2012. Haar wavelets, fluctuations and structure functions: Convenient choices for geophysics. Nonlinear Processes in Geophysics 19: 1–14. doi:10.5194/npg-19-1-2012.
———. 2013. The weather and climate: Emergent laws and multifractal cascades., 496 pp. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lovejoy, S., A.F. Tuck, S.J. Hovde, and D. Schertzer. 2007. Is isotropic turbulence relevant in the atmosphere? Geophysical Research Letters 34: L14802. doi:10.1029/2007GL029359.
Lovejoy, S., D. Schertzer, M. Lilley, K.B. Strawbridge, and A. Radkevitch. 2008. Scaling turbulent atmospheric stratification. Part I: Turbulence and waves. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 134: 277–300. doi:10.1002/qj.201.
Lovejoy, S., D. Schertzer, and D. Varon. 2013. Do GCM’s predict the climate…. or macroweather? Earth System Dynamics 4: 1–16. doi:10.5194/esd-4-1-2013.
Lovejoy, S., J.P. Muller, and J.P. Boisvert. 2014. On Mars too, expect macroweather. Geophysical Research Letters 41: 7694–7700. doi:10.1002/2014GL061861.
Lovejoy, S., L. del Rio Amador, and R. Hébert. 2015. The ScaLIng Macroweather Model (SLIMM): Using scaling to forecast global-scale macroweather from months to decades. Earth System Dynamics 6: 1–22. http://www.earth-syst-dynam.net/6/1/2015/. doi:10.5194/esd-6-1-2015.
Mandelbrot, B.B., and J.W. Van Ness. 1968. Fractional Brownian motions, fractional noises and applications. SIAM Review 10: 422–450.
Merryfield, W.J., B. Denis, J.-S. Fontecilla, W.-S. Lee, S. Kharin, J. Hodgson, and B. Archambault. 2011. The Canadian Seasonal to Interannual Prediction System (CanSIPS): An overview of its design and operational implementationRep., 51pp. Environment Canada.
Newman, M. 2013. An empirical benchmark for decadal forecasts of global surface temperature anomalies. Journal of Climate 26: 5260–5269. doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-12-00590.1.
Panofsky, H.A., and I. Van der Hoven. 1955. Spectra and cross-spectra of velocity components in the mesometeorlogical range. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 81: 603–606.
Papoulis, A. 1965. Probability, random variables and stochastic processes. New York, NY: Mc Graw Hill.
Pauluis, O. 2011. Water vapor and mechanical work: a comparison of carnot and steam cycles. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 68: 91–102. doi:10.1175/2010JAS3530.1.
Penland, C. 1996. A stochastic model of IndoPacific sea surface temperature anomalies. Physica D 98: 534–558.
Penland, C., and P.D. Sardeshmuhk. 1995. The optimal growth of tropical sea surface temperature anomalies. Journal of Climate 8: 1999–2024.
Pinel, J., and S. Lovejoy. 2014. Atmospheric waves as scaling, turbulent phenomena. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 14: 3195–3210. doi:10.5194/acp-14-3195-2014.
Pinel, J., S. Lovejoy, and D. Schertzer. 2014. The horizontal space-time scaling and cascade structure of the atmosphere and satellite radiances. Atmospheric Research 140–141: 95–114. doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2013.11.022.
Radkevitch, A., S. Lovejoy, K.B. Strawbridge, D. Schertzer, and M. Lilley. 2008. Scaling turbulent atmospheric stratification. Part III: Empirical study of space-time stratification of passive scalars using lidar data. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 134: 317–335. doi:10.1002/qj.1203.
Ragone, F., V. Lucarini, and F. Lunkeit. 2015. A new framework for climate sensitivity and prediction: A modelling perspective. Climate Dynamics 46: 1459–1471. doi:10.1007/s00382-015-2657-3.
Richardson, L.F. 1926. Atmospheric diffusion shown on a distance-neighbour graph. Proceedings of the Royal Society A110: 709–737.
Rypdal, K. 2015. Global warming projections derived from an observation-based minimal model. Earth System Dynamics Discussions 6: 1789–1813. doi:10.5194/esdd-6-1789-2015.
Rypdal, M., and K. Rypdal. 2014. Long-memory effects in linear response models of Earth's temperature and implications for future global warming. Journal of Climate 27 (14): 5240–5258. doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-13-00296.1.
Sardeshmukh, P., G.P. Compo, and C. Penland. 2000. Changes in probability assoicated with El Nino. Journal of Climate 13: 4268–4286.
Schertzer, D., and S. Lovejoy. 1985. The dimension and intermittency of atmospheric dynamics. In Turbulent shear flow, ed. L.J.S. Bradbury et al., 7–33. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
———. 1995. From scalar cascades to Lie cascades: Joint multifractal analysis of rain and cloud processes. In Space/time variability and interdependance for various hydrological processes, ed. R.A. Feddes, 153–173. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
———. 2004. Uncertainty and predictability in geophysics: Chaos and multifractal insights. In State of the planet, frontiers and challenges in geophysics, ed. R.S.J. Sparks and C.J. Hawkesworth, 317–334. Washington, DC: American Geophysical Union.
Schertzer, D., S. Lovejoy, F. Schmitt, Y. Chigirinskaya, and D. Marsan. 1997. Multifractal cascade dynamics and turbulent intermittency. Fractals 5: 427–471.
Schertzer, D., I. Tchiguirinskaia, S. Lovejoy, and A.F. Tuck. 2012. Quasi-geostrophic turbulence and generalized scale invariance, a theoretical reply. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 12: 327–336. doi:10.5194/acp-12-327-2012.
Schmidt, G.A., D.T. Shindell, and K. Tsigaridis. 2014. Reconciling warming trends. Nature Geoscience 7: 158–160.
Schwartz, S.E. 2012. Determination of Earth’s transient and equilibrium climate sensitivities from observations over the twentieth century: Strong dependence on assumed forcing. Surveys in Geophysics 33: 745–777.
Steinman, B.A., M.E. Mann, and S.K. Miller. 2015. Atlantic and Pacific multidecadal oscillations and Northern Hemisphere temperatures. Science 347: 988–991. doi:10.1126/science.1257856.
Suckling, E.B., E. Hawkins, G. Jan van Oldenborgh, and J.M. Eden. 2016. An empirical model for probabilistic decadal prediction: A global analysis. Climate Dynamics (submitted).
Tennekes, H. 1975. Eulerian and Lagrangian time microscales in isotropic turbulence. Journal of Fluid Mechanics 67: 561–567.
Vallis, G. 2010. Mechanisms of climate variaiblity from years to decades. In Stochastic physics and climate modelliing, ed. P.W.T. Palmer, 1–34. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Van der Hoven, I. 1957. Power spectrum of horizontal wind speed in the frequency range from 0.0007 to 900 cycles per hour. Journal of Meteorology 14: 160–164.
Zeng, X., and K. Geil. 2017. Global warming projection in the 21st Century based on an observational data driven model. Geophysical Research Letters. (in press).
Acknowledgements
We thank Lydia Elias, Hannah Wakeling and Weylan Thompson for undergraduate summer contributions in developing StocSIPS. We thank OURANOS for funding Lydia Elias’s summer work. We thank Dave Clark, Norberto Majlis and Yosvany Martinez (Environment Canada) for regular discussions. Hydro Quebec is thanked for partial support of L. Del Rio Amador during his PhD. The project itself was unfunded, there were no conflicts of interest.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2018 Springer International Publishing AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Lovejoy, S., Del Rio Amador, L., Hébert, R. (2018). Harnessing Butterflies: Theory and Practice of the Stochastic Seasonal to Interannual Prediction System (StocSIPS). In: Tsonis, A. (eds) Advances in Nonlinear Geosciences. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-58895-7_17
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-58895-7_17
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-58894-0
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-58895-7
eBook Packages: Earth and Environmental ScienceEarth and Environmental Science (R0)