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Fire Safety and Building Heritage: The Occupants Perspective

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Fire Safety of Historical Buildings

Part of the book series: SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences and Technology ((BRIEFSAPPLSCIENCES))

Abstract

Current regulations and approaches to fire safety seem to be generally characterized by a schematic and deterministic point of view, especially while dealing with Building Heritage. They generally consider how interventions on buildings could be enough for reducing people’s risk, because occupants would surely behave in the correct way. Hence, massive modifications to the original building layout can be adopted (limited, e.g., to increasing number and dimensions of egress paths), while effective man-environment and man-man emergency evacuation interactions are underestimated. Starting from this issue, this chapter firstly analyses main limitations of these approaches, by focusing on human behaviors during a fire, especially in case of emergencies in historical buildings. To this end, main aspects of both significant international and national regulations and literature studies on human fire evacuation behaviors are organized and reviewed. Hence, the importance of innovative strategies, such as the ones based on the Fire Safety Engineering approach, is discussed by mainly evidencing the fundamental impact of human behavior modeling as a new tool for designing and evaluating low-impact risk-reduction solutions.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Such as an assembly point, or another place where people could be not exposed to emergency conditions and be helped by rescuers.

  2. 2.

    A significant example is the Vaccaj’s theater fire in July 2008 (Tolentino, MC) that occurred during the building restoration and seriously damaged the theater (http://www.viveremacerata.it/2016/07/29/tolentino-teatro-vaccaj-otto-anni-dallincendio/600363/. In Italian. Accessed 26 Sept 2016).

  3. 3.

    http://www.nfpa.org/codes-and-standards/document-information-pages?mode=code&code=557. Accessed 22 Oct 2016.

  4. 4.

    The kJ per m2 representation is commonly used for surface materials; in case of furnitures, such as chairs, a kJ per element value could be adopted.

  5. 5.

    This is the case of delayed evacuation techniques, such as the progressive evacuation strategy: In this case, people move from the damaged fire zone to an adjacent one rather than directly leaving the building. Hence, safety terms are related to each single building part.

  6. 6.

    Due to the involved combustible materials.

  7. 7.

    For example, according to NFPA 90A Standard for the Installation of Air-Conditioning and Ventilating Systems.

  8. 8.

    http://www.nfpa.org/codes-and-standards/all-codes-and-standards/list-of-codes-and-standards?mode=code&code=101. Accessed 6 Oct 2016.

  9. 9.

    http://www.nfpa.org/codes-and-standards/all-codes-and-standards/list-of-codes-and-standards?mode=code&code=914. Accessed 6 Oct 2016.

  10. 10.

    For instance, concerning evacuation problems, in the UK, The Fires Prevention (Metropolis) Act 1774 includes the necessity to introduce ladders for multi-story buildings “for assisting persons in houses on fire to escape therefrom”(Read REH (1984) Means of Escape Legislation in Great Britain: A Study in Statutory History. Statute Law Review 5:102112. doi:10.1093/slr/5.3.102, p. 102.).

  11. 11.

    According to the referring fire-resistance rating standard, as a measure of time, in dependence of building typology, intended use, and/or fire loads (compare to, e.g., Eurocodes, NFPA 914, NFPA 101, other national codes [44, 46].

  12. 12.

    As “a special feature of a service or machine, which offers the opportunity to do or benefit from something”; http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/facility. Accessed 20 Oct 2016.

  13. 13.

    The designer could demonstrate that the existing elements are compliance alternatives themselves.

  14. 14.

    Obviously not “on” the ceiling that is horizontally on it.

  15. 15.

    Or rather, “drivers” or “triggers.”

  16. 16.

    As such, different proposals of time probability distributions have been provided [30, 72]; from a general point of view, the Weibull distribution seems to be the most befitting one, but a lack of experimental activities in Building Heritage exists. Hence, designers could reasonably use data from similar building use in new structures for their RSET analysis.

  17. 17.

    Compare with PD 7974-6:2004, p. 26.

  18. 18.

    The word “systems” suggests that more than one device and/or building components should compose these evacuation facilities. The same comment refers to wayfinding systems.

  19. 19.

    In this sense, the issue is really influenced by pre-movement behaviors, with respect to the adopted emergency management actions and other similar events experienced by people.

  20. 20.

    Here, the problem is related to trapped people and deaths.

  21. 21.

    Nevertheless, people generally allow physical contact with some small obstacles, such as chairs or other small furnitures.

  22. 22.

    Generally, the pedestrian’s dimension can be described with a circle of radius 0.6 m [78].

  23. 23.

    Data of diagrams are retrieved at https://goo.gl/bMMrr9 (Accessed 11 Oct 2016) and based on the Online Database of ped-net.org (2014). It includes Hankin [93]; Helbing D, Johansson A, Al-Abideen HZ (2007) The dynamics of crowd disasters: An empirical study. Physical Review E 75:46109; Mori M, Tsukaguchi H (1987) A new method for evaluation of level of service in pedestrian facilities. Transp Res 21A(3):223234; Seyfried A, Steffen B, Lippert T (2006) Basics of modeling the pedestrian flow. Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications 368:232238. doi:10.1016/j.physa.2005.11.052; Weidmann U (1993) Transporttechnik der Funger. IVT - ETH, available at http://e-collection.library.ethz.ch/eserv/eth:5929/eth-5929-01.pdf.

  24. 24.

    From this point of view, the RSET estimation considers at least two scenarios: maximum design population and sparse population (1/3 of maximum occupants number).

  25. 25.

    When it is not possible to limit fire and damages spreading, a sort of evacuation for furnitures, paintings, and other goods and chattels, performed by firefighters and/or members of the internal safety team. In this case, “solutions to prevent crowding of routes and congestion of the personnel and rescue teams if evacuation of people and items of historic value is going on at the same time” [43].

  26. 26.

    See “Lewin, K., 1951. Field theory in social science; selected theoretical papers. Harper & Row, New York, NY, USA.”

  27. 27.

    Which considers the high effective level of complexity connected to phenomena inside a given population.

  28. 28.

    In general terms, ABM identify agents involved in an environment, and the interactions between them are described. Interactions can be also described in terms of rules. A greater discussion of ABM is offered from a general point of view by [107] and the pedestrians’ evacuation simulation [80].

  29. 29.

    “Involving communication between people or reactions between things that work together” according to the Cambridge Dictionary, http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/interactive. Accessed 24 Oct 2016.

  30. 30.

    Compare to the Vitruvian man’s concept, or to the Le Corbusier’s “Le Modulor” (1948) and “Vers une architecture” (I ed., Paris, Cres, 1923).

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  1. Department of Construction, Civil Engineering and Architecture, Università Politecnica delle Marche, Ancona, Italy

    Gabriele Bernardini

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Bernardini, G. (2017). Fire Safety and Building Heritage: The Occupants Perspective. In: Fire Safety of Historical Buildings. SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences and Technology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-55744-1_2

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