Abstract
The food production system throughout the European Union, which includes farm production, harvesting, transport, processing, storage, marketing and consumption, is vast, complex and open. The high volume of trade in fresh vegetables and fruits contributes to the vulnerability to contamination, whether by accident or intent. Outbreak investigation is critical to understanding the sources of contamination and the steps required to minimize it. The fact that much of the trade in these commodities is international makes it critical that mediation efforts and cooperative research cross national barriers, just as the pathogens do. Enhancing the biosecurity of food production requires assessment of the following: how is the food production system currently organized, in what ways might it be vulnerable to contamination, either accidental or deliberate, what are the primary factors that would allow discrimination between deliberate vs. accidental outbreaks, how can the epidemiological and surveillance systems in Europe be strengthened to shorten outbreak response and mediation times, how can implicated fresh produce be traced to its source, and what forensically valid subtyping method(s) is/are available for detection and discrimination of associated foodborne pathogens.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abramovitch RB, Anderson JC, Martin GB (2006) Bacterial elicitation and evasion of plant innate immunity. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 7:601–611
Agrios G (1988) Plant pathology. Academic Press, Inc., San Diego
Allard MW, Luo Y, Strain E, Pettingill J, Timme R, Wang C, Li C, Keys CE, Zheng J, Tones R, Wilson MR, Musser SM, Brown EW (2013) On the evolutionary history, population genetics and diversity among isolates of Salmonella Enteritidis PFGE pattern JEGX01.0004. PLoS One 8:e55254
Alpas H, Soyer Y, Kiymaz T, Yeni F, Polat OG, Gunel E (2012) Review of extraction methods from exemplar food matrices and the analytical methods available for microbial or toxin contamination identification. Deliverable D 2.25, PLANTFOODSEC, EU Network of Excellence in Security
Aruscavage D, Phelan PL, Lee K, LeJeune JT (2010) Impact of changes in sugar exudate created by biological damage to tomato plants on the persistence of Escherichia coli O157:H7. J Food Sci 75:187–192
Barak J (2004) Biofilms and other strategies exploited by salmonella and friends on plants. Phytopathology 94:S128–S128
Barak JD, Kramer LC, Hao LY (2011) Colonization of tomato plants by Salmonella enterica is cultivar dependent, and type 1 trichomes are preferred colonization sites. Appl Environ Microbiol 77:498–504. doi:10.1128/AEM.01661-10
Bartels C, Beaute J, Fraser G, De Jong B, Martinez Urtaza J, Nichols G, Niskanen T, Palm D, Robeysn E, Severi E, Tavoschi L, Santos CV, Van Walle I, Warns-Petit E, Wetrell T, Whittaker R (2014) European centre for disease prevention and control. Annual epidemiological report – food- and waterborne diseases and zoonoses. ECDC, Stockholm
Bennett JK (2003) Mycotoxins Clin Microbiol Rev 16:497–516
Berger CS (2010) Fresh fruit and vegetables as vehicles for the transmission of human pathogens. Environ Microbiol 12:2385–2397
Brandl MT (2006) Fitness of human enteric pathogens on plants and implications for food safety. Annu Rev Phytopathol 44:367–392. doi:10.1146/annurev.phyto.44.070505.143359
Brandl MT (2008) Plant lesions promote the rapid multipication of Escherichia coli O157:H7 on postharvest lettuce. Appl Environ Microbiol 74:5285–5289
Buchholz U, Bernard H, Werber D, Bohmer MM, Remschmidt C, Wilking H, Delere Y, an der Heiden M, Adlhoch C, Dreesman J, Ehlers J, Ethelberg S, Faber M, Frank C, Fricke G, Greiner M, Hohle M, Ivarsson S, Jark U, Kirchner M, Koch J, Krause G, Luber P, Rosner B, Stark K, Kuhne M (2011) German outbreak of Escherichia coli O104:H4 associated with sprouts. N Engl J Med 365:1764–1770
Carlin F (2007) Fruits and vegetables. In: Doyle MP, Beuchat LR (eds) Food microbiology: fundamentals and frontiers, 3rd edn. ASM Press, Washington, DC, pp 157–170
CDC (2012) Multistate outbreak of listeriosis linked to whole cantaloupes from Jensen Farms, Colorado. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
CDC (2013) Pulsed Field Gel Electrophoresis (PFGE) [Online]. http://www.cdc.gov/pulsenet/pathogens/pfge.html. Accessed 23 Mar 2013
CDC (2014) Multistate outbreak of Salmonella Braenderup infections linked to nut butter manufactured by nSpired Natural Foods, Inc. (Final Update) [Online]. Available: http://www.cdc.gov/salmonella/braenderup-08-14/index.html. Accessed 20 Mar 2015
Chitarra W, DeCastelli L, Garibaldi A, Gullino ML (2014) Potential uptake of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Listeria monocytogenes from growth substrate into leaves of salad plants and basil grown in soil irrigated with contaminated water. Int J Food Microbiol 189:139–145
CBS News (2013) Feds charge Jensen Farms over 2011 listeria-cantaloupe outbreak. CBS News
Doyle MP, Erickson MC (2012) Opportunities for mitigating pathogen contamination during on-farm food production. Int J Food Microbiol 152:54–74
Drusch SR (2003) Mycotoxins in fruits, fruit juices, and dried fruits. J Food Prot 66:1514–1527
EFSA (2014) Use of whole genome sequencing (WGS) of food-borne pathogens for public health protection. EFSA Scientific Colloquium Summary Report, Parma, EFSA
Erickson M (2012) Internalization of fresh produce by foodborne pathogens. Annu Rev Food Sci Technol 3:283–310
European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (2011a) Reporting on 2009 surveillance data and 2010 epidemic intelligence data. Annual Epidemiological Report. ISBN 978-92-9193-321-1
European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (2011b) Understanding the 2011 EHEC/STEC outbreak in Germany. ECDC Director’s Presentation, ICAAC conference, 17 September, 2011, Chicago, IL, USA. http://ecdc.europa.eu/en/aboutus/organisation/Director%20Speeches/201109_MarcSprenger_STEC_ICAAC.pdf
European Food Safety Authority (2010) Scientific colloquium on emerging risks in food: from identification to communication. Summary Rept. 15. Parma, Italy
European Food Safety Authority (2011) Annual Report. 2011ISBN: 978-92-9199-424-3. 2012
FDA (2014) FDA investigates presence of Listeria in some Hispanic-style cheeses [Online]. HYPERLINK http://www.fda.gov/Food/RecallsOutbreaksEmergencies/Outbreaks/ucm386726.htm http://www.fda.gov/Food/RecallsOutbreaksEmergencies/Outbreaks/ucm386726.htm. Accessed 20 Mar 2015
Felix B, Danan C, Van Walle I, Lailler R, Texier T, Lombard B, Brisabois A, Roussel S (2014) Building a molecular Listeria monocytogenes database to centralize and share PFGE typing data from food, environmental and animal strains throughout Europe. J Microb Methods 104:1–8
Fletcher J, Leach JE, Eversole K, Tauxe R (2013) Human pathogens on plants: designing a multidisciplinary strategy for research. Phytopathology 103:306–315
Flynn D (2006) Salmonella bioterrorism: 25 years later. Food Safety News. http://www.foodsafetynews.com/2009/10/for-the-first-12/#.Vo89UFq5f4E
Forsythe S (2010) The microbiology of safe food, 2nd edn. Wiley, Oxford
Francischini S (2013) Report on detection systems for mycotoxins in food. Deliverable D4.36, PLANTFOODSEC, EU Network of Excellence in Security
Gamliel A, Dehne HW, Karlovsky P, Fletcher J (2015) Minimum required performance of mycotoxin analysis for applications in a biosecurity context. Deliverable D 2.53, PLANTFOODSEC, EU Network of Excellence in Security
GMI (2014) Report of the 7th global microbial identifier meeting. FERA, York, United Kingdom. http://www.globalmicrobialidentifier.org/News-and-Events/Previous-meetings/7th-Meeting-on-GMI
Goodburn CW (2013) The microbiological efficacy of decontamination methodologies for fresh produce: a review. Food Control 32:418–427
Gorman R, Adley CC (2004) Characterization of Salmonella enterica serotype typhimurium isolates from human, food, and animal sources in the Republic of Ireland. J Clin Microbiol 42:2314–2316
Gorny J (2006) Microbial contamination of fresh fruits and vegetables. In: Sapers GM, Gorny JR, Yousef AE (eds) Microbiology of fruits and vegetables. CRC Press, Boca Raton
Gunel E, Polat Kilic G, Bulut E, Durul B, Acar S, Alpas H, Soyer Y (2015) Salmonella surveillance on fresh produce in retail in Turkey. Int J Food Microbiol 199:72–77
Hancock D, Besser T, Rice D (1998) Ecology of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in cattle and impact of management practices. In: Kaper J, O’Brien A (eds) Escherichia coli O157:H7 and other Shiga toxin-producing E. coli strains. ASM Press, Washington, DC, pp 85–91
Hansstein FV (2014) Consumer knowledge and attitudes towards food traceability: a comparison between the European Union, China and North America. 2014 International conference on food security and nutrition IPCBEE vol.67 (2014) © (2014) IACSIT Press, Singapore DOI: 10.7763/IPCBEE. 2014. V67. 22
Hao LY, Willis DK, Andrews-Polymenis H, McClelland M, Barak JD (2012) Requirement of siderophore biosynthesis for plant colonization by Salmonella enterica. Appl Environ Microbiol 78:4561–4570. doi:10.1128/AEM.07867-11
Harris LF (2003) Outbreaks associated with fresh produce: incidence, growth and survival of pathogens in fresh and fresh-cut produce. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2:141
Harris A, Henry C, Quill E, Robb P (2012) Prioritisation of human pathogens on plants in European Union countries. FERA, York
Health Protection (Notification) Regulations (2010) United Kingdom
Ingle RA, Carstens M, Denby KJ (2006) PAMP recognition and the plant-pathogen arms race. BioEssays 28:880–889
Jay JM, Loessner MJ, Golden DA (2005) Modern food microbiology, 7th edn. Springer, New York
Joensen KG, Scheutz F, Lund O, Hasman H, Kaas RS, Nielsen EM, Aarestrup FM (2014) Real-time whole-genome sequencing for routine typing, surveillance, and outbreak detection of verotoxigenic Escherichia coli. J Clin Microbiol 52:1501–1510
Johnson EA (2007) Clostridium botulinum. In: Doyle MP, Beuchat LR (eds) Food microbiology: fundamentals and frontiers, 3rd edn. ASM Press, Washington, DC
Jolley KA, Maiden MCJ (2010) BIGSdb: scalable analysis of bacterial genome variation at the population level. BMC Bioinf 11:595
Knutsson R, van Rotterdam B, Fach P, De Medici D, Frisker M, Löfström C, Ågren J, Segerman G, Wielenga P, Fenicia L, Skiby J, Schultz AC, Ehling-Schulz M (2011) Accidental and deliberate microbiological contamination in feed and food chains – how biotraceability may improve response to bioterrorism. Int J Food Microbiol 145:5123–5128
Lampel K (2007) Shigella species. In: Doyle MP, Beuchat LR (eds) Food microbiology: fundamentals and frontiers, 3rd edn. ASM Press, Washington, DC
Lapidot A, Yaron S (2009) Transfer of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium from contaminated irrigation water to parsley is dependent on curli and cellulose, the biofilm matrix components. J Food Prot 72:618–623
Lapidot A, Romling U, Yaron S (2006) Biofilm formation and the survival of Salmonella Typhimurium on parsley. Int J Food Microbiol 109:229–233. doi:10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2006.01.012
Lienau EK, Strain E, Wang C, Zheng J, Ottesen AR, Keys CE, Hammack TS, Musser SM, Brown EW, Allard MW, Cao G, Meng J, Stones R (2011) Identification of a Salmonellosis outbreak by means of molecular sequencing. New Engl J Med 364:981–982
Macovei L, Miles B, Zurek L (2008) The potential of house flies to contaminate ready-to-eat food with antibiotic resistant enterococci. J Food Prot 71:432–439
Martínez-Vaz BF-G (2014) Enteric pathogen-plant interactions: molecular connections leading to colonization and growth and implications for food safety. Microbes Environ 29:123–135
Melotto M, Underwood W, Koczan J, Nomura K, He SY (2006) Plant stomata function in innate immunity against bacterial invasion. Cell 126:969–980
Melotto M, Underwood W, He SY (2008) Role of stomata in plant innate immunity and foliar bacterial diseases. Annu Rev Phytopathol 46:101–122
Meng JD (2007) Enterohemorrhagic Esherichia coli. In: Doyle MP, Beuchat LR (eds) Food microbiology: fundamentals and frontiers, 3rd edn. ASM Press, Washington, DC
Mitra R, Cuesta-Alonso E, Wayadande A, Talley J, Gilliland S, Fletcher J (2009) Effect of route of introduction and host cultivar on the colonization, internalization, and movement of the human pathogen Escherichia coli O157:H7 in spinach. J Food Prot 72:1521–1530
Olaimat AH (2012) Factors influencing the microbial safety of fresh produce: a review. Food Microbiol 32:1–19
Parish MB (2003) Methods to reduce/eliminate pathogens from fresh and fresh-cut produce. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2:161–173
Rasko DA, Worsham PL, Abshire TG, Stanley ST, Bannan JD, Wilson MR, Langham RJ, Decker RS, Jiang L, Read TD, Phillipy AM, Salzeberg SL, Pop M, Van Ert MN, Kenefic LJ, Keim PS, Fraser-Ligget CM, Ravel J (2011) Bacillus anthracis comparative genome analysis in support of the Amerithrax investigation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 108:5027–5032
Riedel K, Hentzer M, Geisenberger O, Huber B, Steidle A, Wu H, Hoiby N, Givskov M, Molin S, Eberl L (2001) N-acylhomoserine-lactone-mediated communication between Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Burkholderia cepacia in mixed biofilms. Microbiology 147:3249–3263
Robert Koch Institute (2011) Report: final presentation and evaluation of epidemiological findings in the EHEC O104:H4 outbreak, Germany 2011. Berlin
Schikora A, Virlogeux-Payant I, Bueso E, Garcia AV, Nilau T, Charrier A, Pelletier S, Menanteau P, Baccarini M, Velge P, Hirt H (2011) Conservation of Salmonella infection mechanisms in plants and animals. PLoS One 6. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0024112
Schikora A, Garcia AV, Hirt H (2012) Plants as alternative hosts for Salmonella. Trends Plant Sci 17:245–249. doi:10.1016/j.tplants.2012.03.007
Shirron N, Yaron S (2011) Active suppression of early immune response in tobacco by the human pathogen Salmonella Typhimurium. PLoS One 6, e18855. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0018855
Soubeyrand S, Tollenaere C, Haon-Lasportes E, Laine A-L (2014) Regression-based ranking of pathogen strains with respect to their contribution to natural epidemics. PLoS One 9, e86591
Swaminathan BC (2007) Listeria monocytogenes. In: Doyle MP, Beuchat LR (eds) Food microbiology: fundamentals and frontiers, 3rd edn. ASM Press, Washington, DC
Swaminathan B, Barret TJ, Hunter SB, Tauxe RV, Pulsenet Taskforce CDC (2001) PulseNet: the molecular subtyping network for foodborne bacterial disease surveillance, United States. Emerg Infect Dis 7:382–389
Swaminathan B, Gerner-Smidt P, Ng L-K, Lukinmaa S, Kam K-M, Rolando S, Gutierrez EP, Binsztein N (2006) Building PulseNet international: an interconnected system of laboratory networks to facilitate timely public health recognition and response to foodborne disease outbreaks and emerging foodborne diseases. Foodborne Pathog Dis 3:36–50
Talley JL, Wayadande AC, Wasala LP, Gerry AC, Fletcher J, DeSilva U, Gilliland SE (2009) Association of Escherichia coli O157:H7 with filth flies (Muscidae and Calliphoridae) captured in leafy greens fields and experimental transmission of E. coli O157:H7 to spinach leaves by house flies (Diptera: Muscidae). J Food Prot 72:1547–1552
Teplitski M, Barak JD, Schneider KR (2009) Human enteric pathogens in produce: un-answered ecological questions with direct implications for food safety. Curr Opin Plant Biotechnol 20:166–171. doi:10.1016/j.copbio.2009.03.002
Teplitski M, Noel JT, Alagely A, Danyluk MD (2012) Functional genomics studies shed light on the nutrition and gene expression of non-typhoidal Salmonella and enterovirulent E. coli in produce. Food Res Int 45:576–586. doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2011.06.020
Timmons C, Ma LM (2013) Multi-locus variable-number tandem repeat analysis for strain discrimination of non-O157:H7 Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli. International Association Food Protection Annual Meeting Abstract. https://iafp.confex.com/iafp/2013/webprogram/Paper4691.html
Timmons C, Dobhal S, Fletcher J, Ma LM (2013) Primers with 5’ flaps improve the efficiency and sensitivity of multiplex PCR assays for the detection of Salmonella spp. and Escherichia coli O157:H7. J. J Food Prot 76(4):668–673
TNS Opinion & Social (2012) Europeans’ attitudes towards food security, food quality and the countryside. Special Eurobarometer 389. European Commission, DG Agric. and Rural Devel
Ventura-Lucas MR (2004) Consumer perceptions and attitudes towards food safety in Portugal. 84th EAAE Seminar, Food safety in a dynamic world, Zeist, The Netherlands, February 8–11, 2004
World Health Organization (2002) Terrorist threats to food: guidance for establishing and strengthening prevention and response systems. (Food safety issues). ISBN 92 4 154584 4
Wyres K, Conway T, Garg S, Queiroz C, Reumann M, Holt K, Rusu L (2014) WGS analysis and interpretation in clinical and public health microbiology laboratories: what are the requirements and how do existing tools compare? Pathogens 3:437–458
Yeni F, Acar S, Polat ÖG, Soyer Y, Alpas H (2014) Rapid and standardized methods for detection of foodborne pathogens and mycotoxins on fresh produce. Food Control 40:359–367
Yeni F, Yavas S, Alpas H, Soyer Y (2015) Most common foodborne pathogens and mycotoxins on fresh produce: a review of recent outbreaks. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutrit. doi:10.1080/10408398.2013.777021
Zeng W, Melotto M, He SY (2010) Plant stomata: a checkpoint of host immunity and pathogen virulence. Curr Opin Biotechnol 21:599–613
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2017 Springer International Publishing AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Fletcher, J. et al. (2017). Vulnerabilities, Threats and Gaps in Food Biosecurity. In: Gullino, M., Stack, J., Fletcher, J., Mumford, J. (eds) Practical Tools for Plant and Food Biosecurity. Plant Pathology in the 21st Century, vol 8. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-46897-6_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-46897-6_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-46896-9
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-46897-6
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)