Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

What Innovations Have We Already Lost?: The Importance of Identifying and Developing Spatial Talent

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Visual-spatial Ability in STEM Education

Abstract

In a famous talent search by Lewis Terman, there were two young boys who were not identified as gifted but would go on to win the Nobel Prize in physics. Their names were William Shockley and Luis Alvarez and the scientific area in which they achieved their fame was arguably heavily visual-spatial in nature. Why were two Nobel winners missed? Likely because Terman had used the highly verbal Stanford-Binet, which did not include a good spatial measure. Many standardized tests in schools today lack spatial measures, and this means many spatially talented students are not being identified, and their talent is therefore not fully encouraged and developed. This chapter first reviews over 50 years of data showing that spatial ability in addition to math and verbal ability has predictive power in STEM domains. Next, the issue of spatial training and females in STEM are discussed. Then, how these findings and other research can be translated into education practice is presented. Finally, a discussion of the broader societal implications of neglecting spatially talented students will be laid out. For example, how many innovations have we already lost because we have not adequately identified and developed the talent of some of our most promising innovators?

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 119.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 159.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 159.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Ackerman, P. L. (2014). Nonsense, common sense, and science of expert performance: Talent and individual differences. Intelligence, 45, 6–17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Applebaum, H. (1992). The concept of work: Ancient, medieval, and modern. Albany: State University of New York Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Assouline, S. G., Colangelo, N., VanTassel-Baska, J., & Lupkowski-Shoplik, A. (Eds.). (2015). A nation empowered: Evidence trumps the excuses holding back America’s brightest students. Iowa City: University of Iowa.

    Google Scholar 

  • Austin, J. T., & Hanisch, K. A. (1990). Occupational attainment as a function of abilities and interests: A longitudinal analysis using Project Talent data. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75, 77–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Binet, A. (1892). Mental imagery. Fortnightly Review, 52, 95–104.

    Google Scholar 

  • Binet, A., & Simon, T. (1905). New methods for the diagnosis of the intellectual level of subnormals. L'Année Psychologique, 12, 191–244.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carroll, J. B. (1993). Human cognitive abilities: A survey of factor-analytic studies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Ceci, S. J., & Williams, W. M. (2010). The mathematics of sex: How biology and society conspire to limit talented women and girls. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cowen, T. (2011). The great stagnation. New York: Dutton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diderot, D. (1992). Art. (J. H. Mason & R. Wokler, Trans.). In J. H. Mason & R. Wokler (Eds.), Diderot: Political writings (pp. 5–6). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Original work published 1751).

    Google Scholar 

  • Flanagan, J. C., Dailey, J. T., Shaycoft, M. F., Gorman, W. A., Orr, D. B., & Goldberg, I. (1962). Design for a study of American youth. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Galton, F. (1880). I.—Statistics of mental imagery. Mind, 19, 301–318.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gebelhoff, R. (2015). On its way to Pluto, New Horizons became a tool for education like no other probe. The Washington Post. Retrieved July, 2015, from http://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2015/07/17/on-its-way-to-pluto-new-horizons-became-a-tool-for-education-like-no-other-probe/.

  • Goddard, H. H. (1910). Four hundred feeble-minded children classified by the Binet method. Pedagogical Seminary, 17, 387–397.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gohm, C. L., Humphreys, L. G., & Yao, G. (1998). Underachievement among spatially gifted students. American Education Research Journal, 35, 515–531.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heckman, J. J., & Kautz, T. (2012). Hard evidence on soft skills. Labour Economics, 19, 451–464.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hegarty, M. (2004). Mechanical reasoning by mental simulation. Trends in Cognitive Science, 8, 280–285.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holahan, C. K., & Sears, R. R. (1995). The gifted group in later maturity. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huebner, J. (2005). A possible declining trend for worldwide innovation. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 72, 980–986.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Humphreys, L. G., & Lubinski, D. (1996). Brief history and psychological significance of assessing spatial visualization. In C. P. Benbow & D. Lubinski (Eds.), Intellectual talent: Psychometric and social issues (pp. 116–140). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Humphreys, L. G., Lubinski, D., & Yao, G. (1993). Utility of predicting group membership and the role of spatial visualization in becoming an engineer, physical scientist, or artist. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 250–261.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • James, W. (1890). Principles of psychology. New York: Holt.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Kell, H. J., & Lubinski, L. (2013). Spatial ability: A neglected talent in educational and occupational settings. Roeper Review, 34, 219–230.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kell, H. J., Lubinski, D., Benbow, C. P., & Steiger, J. H. (2013). Creativity and technical innovation: Spatial ability’s unique role. Psychological Science, 24, 1831–1836.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Knox, H. A. (1914). A scale, based on the work at Ellis Island, for estimating mental defect. Journal of the American Medical Association, 62, 741–747.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lohman, D. F. (1994a). Spatially gifted, verbally, inconvenienced. In N. Colangelo, S. G. Assouline, & D. L. Ambroson (Eds.), Talent development: Vol. 2. Proceedings from the 1993 Henry B. and Jocelyn Wallace national research symposium on talent development (pp. 251–264). Dayton: Ohio Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lohman, D. F. (1994b). Spatial ability. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Encyclopedia of intelligence (Vol. 2, pp. 1000–1007). New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lohman, D. F. (1996). Spatial ability and G. In I. Dennis & P. Tapsfield (Eds.), Human abilities: Their nature and assessment (pp. 97–116). Hillsdale: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lohman, D. F. (2005). The role of nonverbal ability tests in identifying academically gifted students: An aptitude perspective. Gifted Child Quarterly, 49, 111–138.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lubinski, D. (2010). Spatial ability and STEM: A sleeping giant for talent identification and development. Personality and Individual Differences, 49, 344–351.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lubinski, D., & Benbow, C. P. (2006). Study of mathematically precocious youth after 35 years: Uncovering antecedents for the development of math-science expertise. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1, 316–345.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meehl, P. E., & Rosen, A. (1955). Antecedent probability and the efficiency of psychometric signs, patterns, or cutting scores. Psychological Bulletin, 52, 194–216.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Melby-LervÃ¥g, M., & Hulme, C. (2013). Is working memory training effective? A meta-analytic review. Developmental Psychology, 49, 270–291.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, D. I., & Halpern, D. F. (2013). Can spatial training improve long-term outcomes for gifted STEM undergraduates? Learning and Individual Differences, 26, 141–152.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, D. I., Wai, J., & Uttal, D. H. (under review). Beyond the leaky pipeline: Creating diverse paths into STEM.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morrill Act of 1862, 7 U.S.C. § 304 (2014).

    Google Scholar 

  • National Research Council. (2015). Measuring human capabilities. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • New Horizons. (2015). NASA’s mission to Pluto. Retrieved July, 2015, from http://pluto.jhuapl.edu/

  • Newcombe, N. S. (2010). Picture this: Increasing math and science learning by improving spatial thinking. American Educator, 34, 29–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pinter, R., & Paterson, D. G. (1917). A scale of performance tests. New York: D. Appleton & Company.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology. (2012). Engage to excel: Producing one million additional college graduates with degrees in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. Washington, DC: President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richardson, J. T. (2003). Howard Andrew Knox and the origins of performance testing on Ellis Island, 1912–1916. History of Psychology, 6, 143–170.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sechrest, L. (1963). Incremental validity: A recommendation. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 23, 153–158.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shea, D. L., Lubinski, D., & Benbow, C. P. (2001). Importance of assessing spatial ability in intellectually talented young adolescents: A 20-year longitudinal study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 604–614.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shepard, R. N. (1978). Externalization of mental images and the act of creation. In B. Randhawa & W. Coffman (Eds.), Visual learning, thinking, and communication (pp. 133–190). New York: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shipstead, Z., Redick, T. S., & Engle, R. W. (2012). Is working memory training effective? Psychological Bulletin, 138, 628–654.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simonton, D. K. (1991). Emergence and realization of genius: The lives and works of 120 classical composers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 829–840.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simonton, D. K. (2003). Expertise, competence, and creative ability: The perplexing complexities. In R. J. Sternberg & E. L. Grigorenko (Eds.), The psychology of abilities, competencies, and expertise (pp. 213–239). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Simonton, D. K. (2012). Taking the U.S. Patent Office criteria seriously: A quantitative three- criterion creativity definition and its implications. Creativity Research Journal, 24, 97–106.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, I. M. (1964). Spatial ability: Its educational and social significance. London: University of London Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sorby, S. A., & Baartmans, B. J. (1996). A course for the development of 3-D spatial visualization skills. Engineering Design Graphics Journal, 60, 13–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sorby, S. A., & Baartmans, B. J. (2000). The development and assessment of a course for enhancing the 3-D spatial visualization skills of first year engineering students. Journal of Engineering Education, 89, 301–307.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Super, D. E., & Bachrach, P. B. (1957). Scientific careers and vocational development theory. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sylvester, R. H. (1913). The form board test. Psychological Monographs, 15, 1–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Terman, L. M. (1916). The measurement of intelligence. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Terman, L. M. (1925). Mental and physical traits of a thousand gifted children (Genetic Studies of Genius, Vol. 1). Stanford: Stanford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thiel, P. (2015). Founders fund manifesto. Retrieved July, 2015, from http://www.foundersfund.com/the-future/#

    Google Scholar 

  • Thorndike, R. M., & Lohman, D. F. (1990). A century of ability testing. Chicago: Riverside.

    Google Scholar 

  • Uttal, D. H., Miller, D. I., & Newcombe, N. S. (2013a). Exploring and enhancing spatial thinking: Links to achievement in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22, 367–373.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Uttal, D. H., Meadow, N. G., Tipton, E., Hand, L. L., Alden, A. R., Warren, C., & Newcombe, N. S. (2013b). The malleability of spatial skills: A meta-analysis of training studies. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 352–402.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vance, A. (2015). Elon Musk: Tesla, SpaceX, and the quest for a fantastic future. New York: HarperCollins Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vernon, P. E. (1950). The structure of human abilities. London: Methuen.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vernon, P. E. (1989). The nature-nurture problem in creativity. In J. A. Glover, R. R. Ronning, & C. R. Reynolds (Eds.), Handbook of creativity (pp. 93–110). New York: Plenum.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Viteles, M. S. (1932). Industrial psychology. New York: W. W. Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wai, J. (2011). Why don’t we value spatial intelligence? Getting Smart. Retrieved July, 2015, from http://gettingsmart.com/2011/12/why-dont-we-value-spatial-intelligence/

  • Wai, J. (2012). Three ways schools ignore our most creative thinkers. Business Insider. Retrieved July, 2015, from http://www.businessinsider.com/why-high-spatial-intelligence-gets-ignored-2012-8

  • Wai, J. (2013). Why we need to value students’ spatial creativity. KQED MindShift. Retrieved July, 2015, from http://ww2.kqed.org/mindshift/2013/07/31/why-we-need-to-value-spatial-creativity/.

  • Wai, J. (2015a). By neglecting spatial intelligence, how many Elon Musks have we missed? Quartz. Retrieved July, 2015, from http://qz.com/447137/by-neglecting-spatial-intelligence-how-many-elon-musks-have-we-missed/

  • Wai, J. (2015b). The stubborn pattern of academic aptitude by college major: 1946 to 2014. Quartz. Retrieved July, 2015, from http://qz.com/334926/your-college-major-is-a-pretty-good-indication-of-how-smart-you-are/

  • Wai, J., Lubinski, D., & Benbow, C. P. (2009a). Spatial ability for STEM domains: Aligning over fifty years of cumulative psychological knowledge solidifies its importance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101, 817–835.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wai, J., Lubinski, D., & Benbow, C. P. (2009b). Aligning promise and passion: Best practices for educating intellectually talented youth. In J. S. Renzulli, E. J. Gubbins, K. S. McMillen, R. D. Eckert, & C. A. Little (Eds.), Systems and models for developing programs for the gifted and talented (2nd ed., pp. 693–716). Mansfield Center: Creative Learning Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wai, J., Lubinski, D., Benbow, C. P., & Steiger, J. H. (2010). Accomplishment in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) and its relation to STEM educational dose: A 25-year longitudinal study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102, 860–871.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wai, J., & Worrell, F. C. (2016). Helping disadvantaged and spatially talented students fulfill their potential: Related and neglected national resources. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 3,122–128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webb, R. M., Lubinski, D., & Benbow, C. P. (2007). Spatial ability: A neglected dimension in talent searches for intellectually precocious youth. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99, 397–420.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • West, T. G. (1991). In the mind’s eye. Buffalo: Prometheus Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitney, E. (1990). Paradise restored: The mechanical arts from Antiquity through the thirteenth century. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 80(Part I), 1–169.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wise, L. L., McLaughlin, D. H., & Steel, L. (1979). The project TALENT data bank. Palo Alto: American Institutes for Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wundt, W. (1896). Outlines of psychology (C. H. Judd, Trans.). Leipzig: Entgelmann.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Duke University Talent Identification Program, Durham, NC, USA

    Jonathan Wai

  2. Educational Testing Service, Princeton, NJ, USA

    Harrison J. Kell

Authors
  1. Jonathan Wai
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Harrison J. Kell
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jonathan Wai .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Emirates College for Advanced Education, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

    Myint Swe Khine

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2017 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Wai, J., Kell, H.J. (2017). What Innovations Have We Already Lost?: The Importance of Identifying and Developing Spatial Talent. In: Khine, M. (eds) Visual-spatial Ability in STEM Education. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-44385-0_6

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-44385-0_6

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-44384-3

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-44385-0

  • eBook Packages: EducationEducation (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation