Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Avian Lingual and Laryngeal Apparatus Within the Context of the Head and Jaw Apparatus, with Comparisons to the Mammalian Condition: Functional Morphology and Biomechanics of Evaporative Cooling, Feeding, Drinking, and Vocalization

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
The Biology of the Avian Respiratory System

Abstract

The lingual and laryngeal apparatus are the mobile and active organs within the oral cavity, which serves as a gateway to the respiratory and alimentary systems in terrestrial vertebrates. Both organs play multiple roles in alimentation and vocalization besides respiration, but their structures and functions differ fundamentally in birds and mammals, just as the skull and jaws differ fundamentally in these two vertebrate classes. Furthermore, the movements of the lingual and laryngeal apparatus are interdependent with each other and with the movements of the jaw apparatus in complex and little-understood ways. Therefore, rather than updating the existing numerous reviews of the diversity in lingual morphology of birds, this chapter will concentrate on the functional-morphological interdependences and interactions of the lingual and laryngeal apparatus with each other and with the skull and jaw apparatus. It will:

  1. 1.

    Briefly review the salient features of the mammalian head as a baseline against which to understand the uniqueness of the avian head

  2. 2.

    Describe general morphological features of the lingual and laryngeal apparatus within the context of the skull and jaw apparatus

  3. 3.

    Contrast some fundamental functional-morphological differences that exist among the jaw, lingual and laryngeal apparatus of birds

  4. 4.

    Provide models of the movements of the various parts of the lingual and laryngeal apparatus based on biomechanical analyses

  5. 5.

    Integrate these models with behaviors in thermoregulation, feeding, drinking, and vocalization

  6. 6.

    Briefly demonstrate how detailed morphological and functional analyses can be tested and expanded by using 3D visualization and animation

  7. 7.

    Place the provided data in an evolutionary framework

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    The term akinetic for the mammal skull originated at a time when it was believed that the skull, excluding the lower jaw, was a rigid entity. Since then it has been increasingly understood that the sutures between the individual cranial and facial bones provide significant flexibility, which is necessary not only for the growth and maintenance of the cranial bones but also for balancing the forces that are exerted on the skull during mastication (see, e.g., Herring and Teng 2000).

  2. 2.

    Besides the joints of the incus with the stapes and malleus in the middle ear.

  3. 3.

    For a discussion of the capacity for articulated speech in adult humans, see Sect. 2.9.

  4. 4.

    The anatomical terms follow the Nomina Anatomica Avium (Baumel et al. 1993); hence, oral cavity (cavum oris) is used for what recent physiological-experimental papers have termed “oropharyngeal” or “oropharyngeal-esophageal” cavity (for a review, see Riede et al. 2013).

  5. 5.

    The adult upper beak is formed from various embryonic elements (for details, see Bühler 1981).

  6. 6.

    The exact place and structure of this joint varies among birds (for details, see Bühler 1981).

  7. 7.

    The “seed cup” described by Heidweiller and Zweers (1990) is a different structure between the tip of the fleshy tongue and a rostral projection of the lingual nail.

Abbreviations

Al.ling:

Ala linguae

Al.lingc:

Ala linguae caudalis

Al.lingr:

Ala linguae rostralis

Ap.ling:

Apex linguae

AR:

Arytenoideum

AR.cart:

Cartilaginous portion of the Arytenoideum

Ar.prgl:

Area preglottalis, lingual base (Zweers and Berkhoudt 1987)

Art.:

Articulatio, joint

Art.ar:

Art. intra-arytenoidea

Art.cb:

Art. cerato-basihyalis

Art.cf:

Art. craniofacialis

Art.crp:

Art. crico-procricoidea

Art.ecb:

Art. epi-ceratobranchialis

Art.eph:

Art. epi-pharyngobranchialis

Art.icr:

Art. intracricoidea

Art.icrd:

Art. intracricoidea dorsalis

Art.icrdv:

Art. intracrioidea ventrodorsalis

Art.jr:

Art. jugo-rostralis

Art.par:

Art. processo-arytenoidea

Art.pgb:

Art. paraglosso-basihyalis

Art.ppr:

Art. pterygo-palatorostralis

Art.pr:

Art. palato-rostralis

Art.pra:

Art. procrico-arytenoidea

Art.qj:

Art. quadrato-jugalis

Art.qm:

Art. quadrato-mandibularis

Art.qpt:

Art. quadrato-pterygoidea

Art.qqj:

Art. quadrato-quadratojugalis

Art.qso:

Art. quadrato-squamoso-otica

BH:

Basihyale

BHD:

Basihyoideum (mammals)

C.ling:

Corpus linguae

CAN:

Canine tooth (mammals)

Cart.ar:

Cartilago arytaenoidea (mammals)

Cart.cr:

Cartilago cricoidea (mammals)

Cart.thy:

Cartilago thyroidea (mammals)

CASC:

Subcutaneous cervical air sac of the cervico-cephalic air sac system

Cav.lrx:

Cavum laryngis, laryngeal chamber

Cav.nas:

Cavum nasale

Cav.or:

Cavum oris, oral or mouth cavity

Cav.sbl:

Cavum sublinguale

Cav.syn:

Cavitas synovialis fasciae vaginalis

Cav.tymp:

Cavum tympanicum

CB:

Ceratobranchiale

Cer:

Cera, cere

Cerb:

Cerebrum

Cerbl:

Cerebellum

CH:

Choana

CHD:

Ceratohyoideum (mammals)

CL:

Clavicula, Furcula

Cond.mq:

Condylus mandibularis quadrati

Cond.occ:

Condylus occipitalis

Condd.occ:

Condyli occipitales (mammals)

Cot.qm:

Cotyla quadratica mandibulae

CR:

Cricoideum

CRd:

Cricoideum dorsale

CRv:

Cricoideum ventrale

SK:

Skull, braincase, Cranium

Cutl:

Cuticula cornificata linguae, the lingual nail

EB:

Epibranchial

EH:

Epihyoideum (mammals)

em:

Epimysium (of M. branchiomandibularis)

EPGL:

Epiglottis (mammals)

Fac.art.ar:

Facies articularis intra-arytenoidea

Fac.art.bc:

Facies articularis basihyalis ceratobranchialis

Fac.art.buh:

Facies articularis basihyo-urohyalis

Fac.art.cb:

Facies articularis ceratobranchialis basihyalis

Fac.art.mq:

Facies articularis mandibularis quadrati

Fac.art.par:

Facies articularis processus arytenoidei

Fac.art.phe:

Facies articularis pharyngobranchialis epibranchialis

Fac.art.qm:

Facies articularis quadratica mandibulae

F.cerv:

Fascia cervicalis

F.sbl:

Fascia sublingualis

F.vag:

Fascia vaginalis hyoidei, hyoid sheath

F.vag.pv:

Fascia vaginalis hyoidei parietalis et visceralis

F.vagp:

Fascia vaginalis hyoidei parietalis

F.vagv:

Fascia vaginalis hyoidei visceralis

FM:

Foramen magnum

FR:

Filing ridges on internal surface of projecting upper bill tip in parrots and some cockatoos

GL:

Glottis

Gl.ling:

Glandula lingualis; Gll. linguales rostrales (McLelland 1993)

Gl.md:

Glandula mandibularis; Gll. mandibulares caudales (McLelland 1993)

Gl.mx:

Glandula maxillaris

Gl.pregl:

Glandula preglottalis; Glandulae linguales caudales (McLelland 1993)

Gl.phrx:

Glandula pharyngealis; Gll. sphenopterygoideae (Zweers 1982a, b)

Gl.sbl:

Glandula sublingualis; Gll. mandibulares rostrales (McLelland 1993)

Gl.pl:

Glandula palatina

HP:

Hard, or secondary, palate (mammals)

IM.cnstr.crar:

Insertion of M. constrictor glottidis cricoarytenoideus

IM.cnstr.iarr:

Insertion of M. constrictor glottidis interarytenoideus rostralis

IM.cnstr.iars:

Insertion of M. constrictor glottidis interarytenoideus superficialis

IM.dlgl:

Insertion of M. dilator glottidis

INC:

Incisor tooth (mammals)

INGL:

Ingluvies, crop

INT:

Integument (skin)

J:

Os jugale

Lab.gl:

Labium glottidis

Lab.or:

Labium oralis (mammals)

Lb.pl:

Lobus palatinus

Lig.iph:

Ligamentum interparahyale

Lig.crar:

Ligamentum crico-arytenoideum

Lig.nc:

Ligamentum nodulo-ceratobranchiale

Lig.po:

Ligamentum postorbitale

Lphrx:

Laryngopharynx (mammals)

LP:

lips, Labia oris (mammals)

LX:

Larynx

M.ame:

M. adductor mandibulae externus

M.amec:

M. adductor mandibulae externus caudalis

M.amerl:

M. adductor mandibulae externus rostralis lateralis

M.amert:

M. adductor mandibulae externus rostralis temporalis

M.amev:

M. adductor mandibular externus ventralis

M.bm:

M. branchiomandibularis

M.bmr:

M. branchiomandibularis rostralis

M.bmc:

M. branchiomandibularis caudalis

M.cg:

M. ceratoglossus

M.cgl:

M. ceratoglossus lateralis

M.ch:

M. ceratohyoideus

M.cnstr:

M. constrictor glottidis

M.cnstr.crar:

M. constrictor glottidis cricoarytenoideus

M.cnstr.iarc:

M. constrictor glottidis interarytenoideus caudalis

M.cnstr.iarr:

M. constrictor glottidis interarytenoideus rostralis

M.cnstr.iars:

M. constrictor glottidis interarytenoideus superficialis

M.cnstr.icr:

M. constrictor glottidis intercricoideus

M.crh:

M. cricohyoideus

M.crhd:

M. cricohyoideus dorsalis

M.crhdi:

M. cricohyoideus dorsalis intermedius

M.crhdp:

M. cricohyoideus dorsalis profundus

M.crhds:

M. cricohyoideus dorsalis superficialis

M.crhl:

M. cricohyoideus lateralis

M.crhm:

M. cricohyoideus medialis

M.crhv:

M. cricohyoideus ventralis

M.crpp:

M. cricopapillaris profundus

M.crps:

M. cricopapillaris superficialis

M.dlgl:

M. dilator glottidis

M.dt:

M. dermotemporalis

M.em:

M. ethmomandibularis

M.dm:

M. depressor mandibulae

M.ggl:

M. genioglossus

M.ho:

M. hyoglossus obliquus

M.hol:

M. hyoglossus obliquus lateralis

M.hom:

M. hyoglossus obliquus medialis

M.hgr:

M. hyoglossus rostralis

M.mgl:

M. mesoglossus

M.mhr:

M. mylohyoideus rostralis

M.mhc:

M. mylohyoideus caudalis

M.pq:

M. protractor quadrati

M.pss:

M. pseudotemporalis superficialis

M.pt:

M. pterygoideus

M.ptl:

M. pterygoideus lateralis

M.pvl:

M. pterygoideus ventralis lateralis

M.retr.pl:

M. retractor pterygopalatini

M.sgl:

M. supraglossus

M.sh:

M. serpihyoideus

M.st:

M. stylohyoideus

M.sth:

M. sternohyoideus (mammals)

M.th:

M. tracheohyoideus

M.thc:

M. tracheohyoideus caudalis

M.thr:

M. tracheohyoideus rostralis

M.tl:

M. tracheolateralis

M.tll:

M. tracheolateralis lateralis

M.tlm:

M. tracheolateralis medialis

M.tlu:

M. tracheolateralis urohyalis

MD:

Os mandibulare, mandible

Med.obl:

Medulla oblongata

Med.sp:

Medulla spinalis

Mem.pl:

Membrana connectiva palatina (palatine joint membrane between the corneous and soft parts of the palate)

MH:

Mesohyoideum

Mm.lrx:

Laryngeal muscles

Mm.ling:

Lingual muscles

Mns.lrx:

Mons laryngealis

MOL:

Molar tooth (mammals)

N:

Naris

NCASC:

Passageway between naris and cervical air sac CASC

ND:

Nodulus (sesamoid bone on the urohyal)

Neck:

Neck (vertebral column and neck musculature)

Nphrx:

Nasopharynx (mammals)

OC:

Optic chiasma

OE:

Esophagus

OM.cnstr.crar:

Origin of M. constrictor glottidis cricoarytenoideus

OM.cnstr.iarc:

Origin of M. constrictor glottidis interarytenoideus caudalis

OM.cnstr.iarr:

Origin of M. constrictor glottidis interarytenoideus rostralis

OM.cnstr.icr:

Origin of M. constrictor glottidis intercricoideus

OM.dlgl:

Origin of M. dilator glottidis

Ophrx:

Oropharynx (mammals)

Papp.ch:

Papillae choanales

Papp.gl:

Papillae glottidiales

Papp.lrx:

Papillae laryngeales; ventral pharyngeal scrapers (Zweers and Berkhoudt 1987)

Papp.ling:

Papillae linguales

Papp.phrx:

Papillae pharyngeales

Papp.pl:

Papillae palatinae

PASP:

Parapatagial air sac of the pulmonary air sac system

PB:

Pharyngobranchiale

PC:

Procricoideum

PG:

Paraglossum

PIT:

Pituitary gland

PL:

Os palatinum

Pl.corn:

Palatum corneum

Plut.ch:

Pluteum choanae, lateral choanal shelf

PM:

Premolar tooth (mammals)

Proc.ar:

Processus arytenoideus

Proc.lat:

Processus lateralis quadrati

Proc.mq:

Processus mandibularis quadrati

Proc.mst:

Processus mastoideus (mammals)

Proc.orb:

Processus orbitalis quadrati

Proc.ot:

Processus oticus quadrati

Proc.ph:

Processus parahyalis

Proc.po:

Processus postorbitalis

Proc.rtr:

Processus retroarticularis mandibulae

Proc. uh:

Processus urohyalis

Proc.zyg:

Processus zygomaticus

PT:

Os pterygoideum

Q:

Os quadratum

R.mx:

Rostrum maxillare, maxilla, upper beak

R.sph:

Rostrum sphenoidale

Ram.md:

Ramus mandibularis

Rh.md:

Rhamphotheca mandibularis

Rh.mx:

Rhamphotheca maxillaris

Rim.inf:

Rima infundibuli, entrance to the Eustachian tubes

Sin.f:

Sinus frontalis (mammals)

Sin.sph:

Sinus sphenoidalis (mammals)

SPL:

Soft palate (mammals)

STH:

Stylohyoideum (mammals)

SX:

Syrinx

T:

Tongue (mammals)

T.md:

Tomium mandibulare, cutting edge of the mandibular rhamphotheca

TB:

Tympanic bulla (mammals)

TMH:

Tympanohyoideum (mammals)

Tor.pl:

Torus palatinus

TR:

Trachea

TRh:

Tracheal half rings

TYH:

Thyrohyoideum (mammals)

TS:

Transverse step of the corneous palate (Gradus transversus palati cornei)

VERT:

Vertebral column

VF:

Vocal fold, Plica vocalis (mammals)

References

  • Abumandour MMA, El-Bakary NER. Morphological features of the tongue and laryngeal entrance in two predatory birds with similar feeding preferences: common kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) and Hume’s tawny owl (Strix butleri). Anat Sci Int. 2016;1–12 doi:10.1007/s12565-016-0339-9.

  • Amar-Singh HSS. Little Ringed Plover gular flutter and age. 2015. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kylxA7DhLSU. Accessed 24 Oct 2016.

  • Amar-Singh HSS. Common Snipe gular flutter. 2016. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SJE1R1mAkFA. Accessed 24 Oct 2016.

  • Arad Z, Midtgård U, Bernstein MH. Thermoregulation in turkey vultures: vascular anatomy, arteriovenous heat exchange, and behavior. Condor. 1989;91(3):505–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Avila K. Double-crested Cormorant gular fluttering. 2015. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GH6Mz3faGBw. Accessed 14 Oct 2016.

  • Balete DS, Rickart EA, Rosell-Ambal GB, Jansa S, Heany LR. Descriptions of two new species of Rhynchomys Thomas (Rodentia: Muridae: Murinae) from Luzon Island, Philippines. J Mammal. 2007;88(2):287–301.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bang BG, Wenzel BM. Nasal cavity and olfactory system. In: King AS, McLelland J, editors. Form and function in birds, vol. 3. London: Academic Press; 1985. p. 195–225.

    Google Scholar 

  • Banks WJ. Applied veterinary histology. 3rd ed. St. Louis: Mosby Year Book; 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartholomew AA. The role of behavior in the temperature regulation of the Masked Booby. Condor. 1966;68(8):523–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bartholomew GA, Lasiewski RC, Crawford EC. Patterns of panting and gular flutter in cormorants, pelicans, owls, and doves. Condor. 1968;70:31–4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baumel JJ, Witmer LM. Osteologia. In: Baumel JJ, King AS, Breazile JE, Evans HE, Vanden-Berge J, editors. Handbook of avian anatomy: Nomina Anatomica Avium. 2nd ed. Cambridge, MA: Publications of the Nuttall Ornithological Club No. 123; 1993. p. 45–132.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baumel JJ, Dalley AF, Quinn TH. The collar plexus of subcutaneous thermoregulatory veins in the pigeon, Columba livia; its association with esophageal pulsation and gular flutter. Zoomorphology. 1983;102:215–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baumel JJ, King AS, Beazile JE, Evans HE, Vanden Berge J. Handbook of avian anatomy: Nomina Anatomica Avium. 2nd ed. Cambridge, MA: Publications of the Nuttall Ornithological Club No. 123; 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baussart S, Bels V. Tropical hornbills (Aceros cassidix, Aceros undulatus, and Buceros hydrocorax) use ballistic transport to feed with their large beaks. J Exp Zool. 2011;315:72–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baussart S, Korsoun L, Libourel P-A, Bels V. Ballistic food transport in toucans. J Exp Zool. 2009;311A:465–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bayer RD. Vocalizations of Great Blue Herons at Yaquina Estuary, Oregon. Colonial Waterbirds. 1984;7:35–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beckers GJL, Suthers RA, ten Cate C. Mechanisms of frequency and amplitude modulation in ring dove song. J Exp Biol. 2003;206(11):1833–43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beckers GJL, Nelson BS, Suthers RA. Vocal-tract filtering by lingual action in a parrot. Curr Biol. 2004;14(17):1592–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bels V, Baussart S. Feeding behavior and mechanisms in domestic birds. In: Bels V, editor. Feeding in domestic vertebrates: from structure to function. Oxford: CABI Publishing; 2006. p. 33–49.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Berkhoudt H. The epidermal structure of the bill tip organ in ducks. Neth J Zool. 1976;26(4):561–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berkhoudt H. Taste buds in the bill of the Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos L.): their morphology, distribution and functional significance. Neth J Zool. 1977;27(3):310–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berkhoudt H. The morphology and distribution of cutaneous mechanoreceptors (Herbst and Grandry corpuscles) in bill and tongue of the Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos L.). Neth J Zool. 1980;30(1):1–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berkhoudt H. Structure and function of avian taste receptors. In: King AS, McLelland J, editors. Form and function in birds, vol. 3. London: Academic; 1985. p. 463–95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bhattacharyya BN. Functional morphology of the jaw muscles of some Indian insect-eating birds. Gegenbaurs Morphol Jahrb. 1982;128(2):208–54.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bhattacharyya BN. Functional morphology of the tongue muscles of some Indian insect-eating birds. Gegenbaurs Morphol Jahrb. 1985;131(1):93–123.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bhattacharyya BN. Comparative morphology of the avian jaw apparatus. In: Ouellet H, editor. Acta XIX Congressus Internationalis Ornithologici, National Museum of Natural Sciences, vol. II. Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press; 1988. p. 2418–26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bhattacharyya BN. Functional morphology of the jaw muscles of two species of Imperial Pigeons, Ducula aenea nicobarica and Ducula badia insignis. Gegenbaurs Morphol Jahrb. 1989;135(4):573–618.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bhattacharyya BN. The role of the M. pterygoideus in closure of the beaks in certain columbid birds: a functional morphological analysis reflecting diversity in feeding. Proc Zool Soc. 1997;50(2):171–80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bhattacharyya BN. Functional morphology of the feeding apparatus of the Common Green Pigeon, Treron phoenicoptera (Latham). Proc Zool Soc. 1998;51(1):1–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bhattacharyya BN. Avian jaw function: adaptation of the seven-muscle system and a review. Proc Zool Soc. 2013;66:75. doi:10.1007/s12595-012-0056-x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bhullar B-AS, Hanson M, Fabbri M, Pritchard A, Bever GS, Hoffman E. How to make a bird skull: major transitions in the evolution of the avian cranium, paedomorphosis, and the beak as a surrogate hand. Integr Comp Biol. 2016;56(3):389–403.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bignon F. Contribution à l’étude de la pneumaticité chez les oiseaux. Mém Soc Zool France Paris. 1889;2:260–320 and plates X–XIII.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blevins CE, Ge J, Suthers RA, Homberger DG. An animated 3D model of the synchronous movements of the suprasyringeal structures and organs in the neck of a vocalizing songbird, the Northern Cardinal (Cardinalis cardinalis). FASEB J. 2014;28(Suppl):918.8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bock WJ. Kinetics of the avian skull. J Morphol. 1964;114:1–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bock WJ. Morphology of the tongue apparatus of Ciridops anna (Drepanididae). Ibis. 1972;114(1):61–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bock WJ. The avian skeletomuscular system. In: Farner DS, King JR, Parkes KC, editors. Avian biology, vol. IV. New York: Academic Press; 1974. p. 109–258.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bock WJ. Tongue morphology and affinities of the Hawaiian honeycreeper Melamprosops phaeosoma. Ibis. 1978a;120(4):467–79.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bock WJ. Morphology of the larynx of Corvus brachyrhynchos (Passeriformes: Corvidae). Wilson Bull. 1978b;90(4):553–65.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bock WJ. Is Diglossa (?Thraupinae) monophyletic? Neotrop Ornithol. 1985a;36:319–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bock WJ. Relationships of the sugarbird (Promerops; Passeriformes, ?Meliphagidae). In: Schuchmann K-L, editor. Proceedings of the international symposium on African vertebrates: systematics, phylogeny, and evolutionary ecology. Bonn: Zoologisches Forschungsinstitut und Museum Alexander Koenig; 1985b. p. 349–74.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bock WJ. The skeletomuscular system of the feeding apparatus of the Noisy Scrub-bird, Atrichornis clamosus (Passeriformes: Atrichornithidae). Rec Aust Mus. 1985c;37:193–210.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bock WJ. Functional and evolutionary morphology of woodpeckers. Ostrich. 1999a;70(1):23–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bock WJ. Cranial kinesis revisited. Zool Anz. 1999b;238(1–2):27–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bock WJ, Morony J. The preglossale of Passer (Aves: Passeriformes)—a skeletal neomorph. J Morphol. 1978;155(1):99–110.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bock WJ, von Wahlert G. Adaptation and the form-function complex. Evolution. 1965;19(3):269–99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bock WJ, Balda RP, Vander Wall SB. Morphology of the sublingual pouch and tongue musculature in Clark’s Nutcracker. Auk. 1973;90(3):491–519.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Böker H. Die anatomische Konstruktion zur Erweiterung des Unterschnabels bei den Pelikanen. Anat Anz. 1938;87:294–303.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bottoni L, Masin S, Lenti-Boero D. Vowel-like sound structure in an African Grey Parrot (Psittacus erithacus) vocal production. Open Behav Sci J. 2009;3:1–16. doi:10.2174/1874230000903010001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bowman RI. Morphological differentiation and adaptation in the Galápagos Finches, Berkeley: University of California Publications in Zoology, vol. 58; 1961. p. 1–326.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bragulla HH, Homberger DG. Structure and functions of keratin proteins in simple, stratified, keratinized and cornified epithelia. J Anat. 2009;214(4):516–59.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bühler P. Functional anatomy of the avian jaw apparatus. In: King AS, McLelland J, editors. Form and function in birds, vol. 2. London: Academic Press; 1981. p. 439–68.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bühler P. Grösse, Form, und Färbung des Tukanschnabels—Grundlage für den evolutiven Erfolg der Ramphastiden? J Ornithol. 1995;136(2):187–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burle MH, Rico-Guevara A, Rubega MA, Lank D. A hummingbird tongue in a shorebird head: Tuamoto sandpipers are nectar-feeders. Int Comp Biol. 2013;53(Suppl 1):e25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Calder WA, King JR. Thermal and caloric relations of birds. In: Farner DS, King JR, Parkes KC, editors. Avian biology, vol. IV. New York: Academic Press; 1974. p. 259–413.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell G. Effects of temperature on gular fluttering and evaporative water loss in four sympatric cormorants in southern Africa [Ph.D. thesis]. Cape Town: University of Cape Town; 2014. https://open.uct.ac.za/bitstream/handle/11427/12815/thesis_sci_2014_campbell_g.pdf?sequence= 1. Accessed 24 Oct 2016.

  • Campbell-Tennant DJE, Gardner JL, Kearney MR, Symonds MRE. Climate-related spatial and temporal variation in bill morphology over the past century in Australian parrots. J Biogeogr. 2015;42(6):1163–75. doi:10.1111/jbi.12499.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chow L. Spotted wood-owl and gular fluttering. 2014. http://www.besgroup.org/2014/04/21/spotted- wood-owl-and-gular-fluttering/. Accessed 24 Oct 2016.

  • Claes R, Muyshondt PGG, Van Hoorebeke L, Dhaene J, Dirckx JJJ, Aerts P. The effect of craniokinesis on the middle ear of domestic chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus). J Anat. 2016; doi:10.1111/joa.12566.

    Google Scholar 

  • Collias NE. The vocal repertoire of the Red Junglefowl: a spectrographic classification and the code of communication. Condor. 1987;89:510–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cozic AM, Homberger DG. The paired cervico-cephalic air sacs and their role in the vocalizations of songbirds. FASEB J. 2015;29(April, Suppl):867.9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cozic AM, Homberger DG. The role of cervical air sacs in the vocalization of songbirds. Anat Rec. 2016;299(Special Feature, 41):258–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crawford EC. Mechanical aspects of panting in dogs. J Appl Physiol. 1962;17:249–51.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Creutz G. Der Graureiher: Ardea cinerea. Die Neue Brehm-Bücherei, A. Lutherstadt Wittenberg: Ziemsen Verlag; 1981.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crole MR, Soley JT. Comparative distribution and arrangement of Herbst corpuscles in the oropharynx of the ostrich (Struthio camelus) and emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae). Anat Rec. 2014;297:1338–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crole MR, Soley JT. Contrasting morphological evidence for the presence of taste buds in Dromaius novaehollandiae and Struthio camelus (Palaeognathae, Aves). Zoomorphology. 2015;134(3):499–507.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cruickshank AJ, Gautier J-P, Chappuis C. Vocal mimicry in wild African Grey Parrots Psittacus erithacus. Ibis. 1993;135(3):293–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cummins CL. The morphology of the hyoid apparatus and gular region of the Snowy Egret, Egretta thula (Molina), (Aves: Ardeidae) [M.S. thesis]. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University; 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham SJ, Alley MR, Castro I, Potter MA, Cunningham M, Pyne MJ. Bill morphology of ibises suggests a remote-tactile sensory system for prey detection. Auk. 2010;127(2):308–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Danner RM, Gulson-Castillo ER, James HF, Dzielski SA, Frank DC, Sibbald ET, Winkler DW. Habitat-specific divergence of air conditioning structures in bird bills. Auk. 2017;134(1):65–75. doi:10.1642/AUK-16-107.1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dawson MM, Metzger KA, Baier DB, Brainerd EL. Kinematics of the quadrate bone during feeding in mallard ducks. J Exp Biol. 2011;214(12):2036–46.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • De Beer G. Archaeopteryx lithographica. London: Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History); 1954a.

    Google Scholar 

  • De Beer GR. Archaeopteryx and evolution. Oxford Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, No. 42. 1954b Sep. p. 1–11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Doran GA. Review of the evolution and phylogeny of the mammalian tongue. Acta Anat. 1975;91(1):118–29.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Doran GA, Baggett H. A structural and functional classification of mammalian tongues. J Mammal. 1971;52(2):427–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • de Juana E. Family Pteroclidae (Sandgrouse). In: del Hoyo J, Elliott A, Sargatal J, editors. Handbook of the birds of the world, Sandgrouse to Cuckoos, vol. 4. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions; 1997. p. 30–57.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dyce KM, Sack WO, Wensing CJG. Textbook of veterinary anatomy. Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders Company; 1987.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dzerzhinsky FYA. Biomechanical analysis of the avian jaw apparatus [in Russian]. Moscow, Russia: Moscow State University Press; 1972.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elemans CPH, Mead AF, Rome LC, Goller F. Superfast vocal muscles control song production in songbirds. PLoS One. 2008;3(7):e2581. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002581.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Erdoğan S, Iwasaki S. Function-related morphological characteristics and specialized structures of the avian tongue. Ann Anat. 2014;196(2–3):75–87.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Erdoğan S, Pèrez W, Alan A. Anatomical and scanning electron microscopic investigations of the tongue and laryngeal entrance of the Long-legged Buzzard (Buteo rufinus, Cretschmar, 1829). Microsc Res Tech. 2012a;75(9):1245–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Erdoğan S, Sağsöz H, Akbalik ME. Anatomical and histological structure of the tongue and histochemical characteristics of the lingual salivary glands in the chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar, Gray 1830). Br Poult Sci. 2012b;53(3):307–15.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Esselstyn JA, Achmadi AS, Rowe KC. Evolutionary novelty in a rat with no molars. Biol Lett. 2012;8(6):990–3.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Evans HE, Martin GR. Organa sensuum [Organa sensoria]. In: Baumel JJ, King AS, Breazile JE, Evans HE, Vanden Berge J, editors. Handbook of avian anatomy: Nomina Anatomica Avium. 2nd ed. Cambridge, MA: Publications of the Nuttall Ornithological Club No. 123; 1993. p. 585–611.

    Google Scholar 

  • Evans RM. Development of thermoregulation in young white pelicans. Can J Zool. 1984;62(56):808–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ewald PW, Williams WA. Function of the bill and tongue in nectar uptake by hummingbirds. Auk. 1982;99(3):573–6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fam DN. New Zealand Birds: Australasian Gannet adult panting. 2013. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HpSCeVXb_D4. Accessed 24 Oct 2016.

  • Fisher HI, Goodman DC. The myology of the whooping crane, Grus americana. Illinois Biological Monographs, vol. 24, No. 2. Urbana: University of Illinois Press; 1955. p. 1–127.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Fitch T. Production of vocalizations in mammals. In: Brown K, editor. Encyclopedia of language and linguistics. 2nd ed. Oxford: Elsevier; 2006. p. 115–21.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Fitch WT, de Boer B, Mathur N, Ghazanfar AA. Monkey vocal tracts are speech-ready. Sci Adv. 2016;2(12):e1600723. doi:10.1126/sciadv.1600723.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Fletcher NH, Riede T, Beckers GJL, Suthers RA. Vocal tract filtering and the “coo” of doves. J Acoust Soc Am. 2004;116(6):3750–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fletcher NH, Riede T, Suthers RA. Model for vocalization by a bird with distensible vocal cavity and open beak. J Acoust Soc Am. 2006;119(2):1005–111.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Foelix RF. Vergleichend-morphologische Untersuchungen an den Speicheldrüsen körnerfressender Singvögel. Zool Jahrb Anat. 1970;87:523–87.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frey R, Gebler A. Mechanisms and evolution of roaring-like vocalization in mammals. In: Brudzynski SM, editor. Handbook of mammalian vocalization—an integrative neuroscience approach. London: Academic Press; 2010. p. 439–50.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Frey R, Gebler A, Fritsch G, Nygrén K, Weissengruber GE. Nordic rattles: the hoearse vocalization and the inflatable laryngeal air sac of reindeers (Rangifer tarandus). J Anat. 2007;210(2):131–59.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gallup AC, Miller ML, Clark AB. Yawning and thermoregulation in budgerigars, Melopsittacus undulatus. Anim Behav. 2009;77:109–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gaunt SLL. Thermoregulation in doves (Columbidae): a novel esophageal heat exchanger. Science. 1980;210:445–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gaunt AS, Gaunt SLL. Mechanics of the syrinx in Gallus gallus. II. Electromyographic studies of ad libitum vocalizations. J Morphol. 1977;152(1):1–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Genbrugge A, Herrel A, Boone M, van Hoorebeke L, Podos J, Dirckx J, Aerts P, Adriaens D. The head of the finch: the anatomy of the feeding system in two species of finches (Geospiza fortis and Padda oryzivora). J Anat. 2011;219(6):676–95.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Genbrugge A, Adriaens D, de Kegel B, Brabant L, van Hoorebeke L, Podos J, Dirckx J, Aerts P, Herrel A. Structural tissue organization in the beak of Java and Darwin’s finches. J Anat. 2012;21(5):383–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • German RZ, Crompton AW. The ontogeny of feeding in mammals. In: Schwenk K, editor. Feeding: form, function, and evolution in tetrapod vertebrates. San Diego, CA: Academic Press; 2000. p. 449–57.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Gerritsen AFC, Meiboom A. The role of touch in prey density estimation by Calidris alba. Neth J Zool. 1986;36:530–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gerritsen AFC, Sevenster JG. Foraging behavior and bill anatomy in sandpipers. In: Duncker H-R, Fleischer G, editors. Vertebrate morphology, Fortschritte der Zoologie, vol. 30; 1985. p. 237–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ghetie V, Atanasiu I. Die Myologie des Zungenbeinaufhängeapparates und der Zunge, beim Hühner- und Wassergeflügel. Rev Biol Bucharest. 1962;7:85–94.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goller F, Cooper BG. Peripheral motor dynamics of song production in the Zebra Finch. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2004;1016:130–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goller F, Cooper BG. Peripheral mechanisms of sensorimotor integration during singing. In: Zeigler HP, Marler P, editors. Neuroscience of birdsong. New York: Cambridge University Press; 2008. p. 99–114.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goller F, Mallinckrodt MJ, Torti SD. Beak gape dynamics during song in Zebra finch. J Neurobiol. 2004;59(3):289–303.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman DC, Fisher HI. Functional anatomy of the feeding apparatus in waterfowl (Aves: Anatidae). Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press; 1962.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gottschaldt K-M. Structure and function of avian somatosensory receptors. In: King AS, McLelland J, editors. Form and function in birds, vol. 3. London: Academic Press; 1985. p. 375–461.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg R, Danner R, Olsen B, Luther D. High summer temperature explains bill size variation in salt marsh sparrows. Ecography. 2011;35(2):146–52. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0587.2011.07002.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Güntert M, Ziswiler V. Konvergenzen in der Struktur von Zunge und Verdauungstrakt nektarfressender Papageien. Rev Suisse Zool. 1972;79:1016–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gussekloo SWS. Feeding structures in birds. In: Bels V, editor. Feeding in domestic vertebrates: from structure to function. Oxford: CABI Publishing; 2006. p. 14–32.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Gussekloo SWS, Bout RG. The kinematics of feeding and drinking in paleognathous birds in relation to cranial morphology. J Exp Biol. 2005;208(17):3395–407.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gussekloo SWS, Zweers GA. Feeding adaptations in the greater rhea (Rhea americana; Ratitae). J Morphol. 1997;232(3):262.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gussekloo SWS, Vosselman MG, Bout RG. Three-dimensional kinematics of skeletal elements in avian prokinetic and rhynchokinetic skulls determined by Roentgen stereophotogrammetry. J Exp Biol. 2001;204(10):1735–44.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gutmann WF. The hydraulic principle. Am Zool. 1988;28:257–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haggard P, de Boer L. Oral somatosensory awareness. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2014;47:4690484. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.09.015.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harrison DFN. The anatomy and physiology of the mammalian larynx. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; 1995

    Google Scholar 

  • Hausberger M, Black JM, Richard J-P. Bill opening and sound spectrum in barnacle goose loud calls: individuals with ‘wide mouths’ have higher pitched voices. Anim Behav. 1991;42(2):319–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heidweiller J, Zweers GA. Drinking mechanisms in the zebra finch and the bengalese finch. Condor. 1990;92(1):1–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heidweiller J, van Loon JA, Zweers GA. Flexibility of the drinking mechanism in adult chickens (Gallus gallus) (Aves). Zoomorphology. 1992;111:141–59.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herring SW, Teng S. Strain in the braincase and its sutures during function. Am J Phys Anthropol. 2000;112:575–93.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hiiemae KM. Feeding in mammals. In: Schwenk K, editor. Feeding: form, function, and evolution in tetrapod vertebrates. San Diego, CA: Academic; 2000. p. 411–48.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Hoese WJ, Podos J, Boetticher NC, Nowicki S. Vocal tract function in birdsong production: experimental manipulation of beak movements. J Exp Biol. 2000;203(12):1845–55.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Homberger DG. Functional morphology of the larynx in the parrot Psittacus erithacus. Am Zool. 1979;19(3):988.

    Google Scholar 

  • Homberger DG. Funktionell-morphologische Untersuchungen zur Radiation der Ernährungs- und Trinkmethoden der Papageien (Psittaci). Bonner zoologische Monographien, vol. 13. Bonn: Zoologisches Forschungsinstitut und Museum Alexander Koenig; 1980. p. 1–192.

    Google Scholar 

  • Homberger DG. Nonadaptive evolution of avian drinking methods. Am Zool. 1983;23(4):894.

    Google Scholar 

  • Homberger DG. The lingual apparatus of the African Grey Parrot, Psittacus erithacus Linné (Aves: Psittacidae): description and theoretical mechanical analysis. Ornithol Monogr. 1986;39:1–232.

    Google Scholar 

  • Homberger DG. Comparative morphology of the avian tongue. In: Ouellet H, editor. Acta XIX Congressus Internationalis Ornithologici, vol. II. Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press; 1988a. p. 2427–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Homberger DG. Models and tests in morphology: the significance of description and integration. Am Zool. 1988b;28(1):217–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Homberger DG. Filing ridges and transversal step of the maxillary rhamphotheca in Australian cockatoos (Psittaciformes: Cacatuidae): a homoplastic structural character evolved in adaptation to seed shelling. In: van den Elzen R, Schuchmann K-L, Schmidt-Koenig K, editors. Proceedings of the international 100th DO-G meeting: current topics in avian biology. Bonn: German Ornithological Society. 1990. p. 43–48.

    Google Scholar 

  • Homberger DG. The hyoid suspension apparatus as a structural constraint of feeding mechanisms in birds and mammals. J Morphol. 1994a;220(3):355.

    Google Scholar 

  • Homberger DG. Oekomorphologie der rotschwänzigen Rabenkakadu-Arten (Calyptorhvnchus spp.) in Australien: Beispiel einer multispektiven Biodiversitätsstudie als Grundlage für die Rekonstruktion der Evolutionsgeschichte einer Artengruppe. In: Gutmann WF, Mollenhauer D, Peters DS, editors. Senckenberg-Buch 70: Morphologie und Evolution. Frankfurt a.M: Kramer; 1994b. p. 425–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Homberger DG. The role of the larynx in articulated vocalization of birds. Am Zool. 1997;37(5):136A.

    Google Scholar 

  • Homberger DG. The avian tongue and larynx: multiple functions in nutrition and vocalization. In: Adams N, Slotow R, editors. Proceedings of the 22nd International Ornithological Congress. Durban, South Africa: University of Natal; 1999. p. 94–113.

    Google Scholar 

  • Homberger DG. The case of the cockatoo bill, horse hoof, rhinoceros horn, whale baleen, and turkey beard: the integument as a model system to explore the concepts of homology and non-homology. In: Dutta HM, Datta Munshi JS, editors. Vertebrate functional morphology: horizon of research in the 21st century. Enfield, NH: Science Publishers Inc.; 2001. p. 317–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Homberger DG. The aerodynamically streamlined body shape of birds: implications for the evolution of birds, feathers, and avian flight. In: Zhou Z, Zhang F, editors. Proceedings of the 5th symposium of the Society of Avian Paleontology and Evolution, Beijing, 1–4 June 2000. Science Press, Beijing, 1–4 June 2002. p. 227–252.

    Google Scholar 

  • Homberger DG. The comparative biomechanics of a prey-predator relationship: the adaptive morphologies of the feeding apparatus of Australian Black-Cockatoos and their foods as a basis for the reconstruction of the evolutionary history of the Psittaciformes. In: Bels VL, Gasc J-P, Casinos A, editors. Vertebrate biomechanics and evolution. Oxford, UK: BIOS Scientific Publishers; 2003. p. 203–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Homberger DG. The classification and the status of wild populations of parrots. In: Luescher A, editor. Manual of parrot behavior. Ames, IA: Blackwell Publishing; 2006. p. 3–12.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Homberger DG. Comparative beak morphology of two subspecies of Australian Red-tailed Black-Cockatoos: small changes with significant functional effects as a model for macroevolutionary processes. Anat Rec. 2016;24:131–2.

    Google Scholar 

  • Homberger DG, Brush AH. Functional morphological and biochemical correlations of the keratinized structures of the African Grey Parrot (Psittacus erithacus L.). Zoomorphology. 1986;106:103–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Homberger DG, Cozic AM. New insights in the functional anatomy of the neck and its organs in songbirds. Integr Comp Biol. 2015;55(Suppl 1):e82.

    Google Scholar 

  • Homberger DG, Meyers RA. The morphology of the lingual apparatus of the domestic chicken, Gallus gallus, with special attention to the structure of the fasciae. Am J Anat. 1989;186(3):217–57.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Homberger DG, Walker WF. Vertebrate dissection. 9th ed. Florence: Brooks/Cole; 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  • Homberger DG, Ziswiler V. Funktionell-morphologische Untersuchungen am Schnabel von Papageien. Rev Suisse Zool. 1972;79:1038–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Howell TR, Bartholomew GA. Temperature regulation in the red-tailed tropic bird and the red-footed booby. Condor. 1962;64:6–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ilyichev V, Silayeva O. Talking birds. Moscow: Nauka Publishers; 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  • Immelmann K, Immelmann G. Verhaltensökologische Studien an afrikanischen und australischen Estrildiden. Zool Jb Syst. 1967;94:609–86.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackowiak H, Godynicki S. Light and scanning electron microscopic study of the tongue in the white tailed eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla, Accipitridae, Aves). Ann Anat. 2005;187(3):251–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackowiak H, Ludwig M. Light and scanning electron microscopic study of the structure of the ostrich (Struthio camelus) tongue. Zool Sci. 2008;25:188–94.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jackowiak H, Andrzejewski W, Godynicki S. Light and scanning electron microscopic study of the tongue in the Cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo (Phalacrocoracidae, Aves). Zool Sci. 2006;23:161–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jackowiak H, Skieresz-Szewczyk K, Godynicki S, Iwasaki S, Meyer W. Functional morphology of the tongue in the Domestic Goose (Anser anser f. domestica). Anat Rec. 2011;294(9):1574–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jarvis E, Mirarab S, Aberer AJ, Li B, Houde P, Li C, Ho SYW, Faircloth BC, Nabholz B, Howard JT, Suh A, Weber CC, da Fonseca RR, Li J, Zhang F, Li H, Zhou L, Narula N, Liu L, Ganapathy G, Boussau B, Bayzid MS, Zavidovych V, Subramanian S, Gabaldón T, Capella-Gutiérrez S, Huerta-Cepas J, Rekepalli B, Munch K, Schierup M, Lindow B, Warren WC, Ray D, Green RE, Bruford MW, Zhan X, Dixon A, Li S, Li N, Huang Y, Derryberry EP, Bertelsen MF, Sheldon FH, Brumfield RT, Mello CV, Lovell PV, Wirthlin M, Schneider MPC, Prosdocimi F, Samaniego JA, Velazquez AMV, Alfaro-Núñez A, Campos PF, Petersen B, Sicheritz-Ponten T, Pas A, Bailey T, Scofield P, Bruce M, Lambert DM, Zhou Q, Perelman P, Driskell AC, Shapiro B, Xiong Z, Zeng Y, Liu S, Li Z, Liu B, Wu K, Xiao J, Yinqi X, Zheng Q, Zhang Y, Yang H, Wang J, Smeds L, Rheindt FE, Braun M, Fjeldsa J, Orlando L, Barker FK, Jonsson KA, Johnson W, Koepfli K-P, O’Brien S, Haussler D, Ryder OA, Rahbek C, Willerslev E, Graves GR, Glenn TC, McCormack J, Burt D, Ellegren H, Alström P, Edwards SV, Stamatakis A, Mindell DP, Cracraft J, Braun EL, Warnow T, Jun W, Gilbert MTP, Zhang G. Whole-genome analyses resolve early branches in the tree of life of modern birds. Science. 2014;346(6215):1320–31.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kalyakin MV, Dzerzhinsky FYA. Some aspects of trophic adaptations in bulbuls (Aves, Pycnonotidae) as seen from functional morphology of feeding apparatus. Zool Zurn. 1997;76(7):836–44. [in Russian]

    Google Scholar 

  • Kear J. Food selection in finches with special reference to interspecific differences. Proc Zool Soc London. 1962;138(2):163–204.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kier WM, Smith KK. Tongues, tentacles and trunks: the biomechanics of movement in muscular-hydrostats. Zool J Linnean Soc. 1985;83:307–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kooloos JGM. A conveyer-belt model for pecking in the mallard (Anas platyrhynchos L.). Neth J Zool. 1986;36(1):47–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kooloos JGM, Zweers GA. Mechanics of drinking in the mallard (Anas platyrhynchos, Anatidae). J Morphol. 1989;199:327–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kooloos JGM, Zweers GA. Integration of pecking, filter feeding and drinking mechanisms in waterfowl. Acta Biotheor. 1991;39:107–40.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kooloos JGM, Kraaijeveld AR, Langenbach GEJ, Zweers GA. Comparative mechanics of filter feeding in Anas platyrhynchos, Anas clypeata and Aythya fuligula. Zoomorphology. 1989;108(5):269–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Korzun LP, Érard C, Gasc J-P, Dzerzhinsky FJ. Bill and hyoid apparatus of pigeons (Columbidae) and sandgrouse (Pteroclidae): a common adaptation to vegetarian feeding? C R Biol. 2008;331(1):64–87.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Krulis V. Struktur und Verteilung von Tastrezeptoren im Schnabel-Zungenbereich von Singvögeln, im besonderen der Fringillidae. Rev Suisse Zool. 1978;85(2):385–447.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laitman JT, Reidenberg JS. Specializations of the human upper respiratory and upper digestive systems as seen through comparative and developmental anatomy. Dysphagia. 1993a;8(4):318–25.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Laitman JT, Reidenberg JS. Comparative anatomy of the mammalian epiglottis: functional and evolutionary implications. Anat Rec. 1993b;237(Suppl 1):76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Larson JE, Herring SW. Movement of the epiglottis in mammals. Am J Phys Anthropol. 1996;100:71–82.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lasiewski RC. Respiratory function in birds. In: Farner DS, King JR, Parkes KC, editors. Avian biology, vol. II. New York: Academic Press; 1972. p. 287–342.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Lasiewski RC, Bartholomew GA. Evaporative cooling in the poor-will and the tawny frogmouth. Condor. 1966;68:253–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lasiewski RC, Snyder GH. Responses to high temperatures in nestling double-crested and pelagic cormorants. Auk. 1969;86:529–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leder SB, Burrell MI, Van Dale DJ. Epiglottis is not essential for successful swallowing in humans. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 2010;119(12):795–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leiber A. Vergleichende Anatomie der Spechtzunge. Zoologica. 1907;51:1–79 and plates I–VI.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leo-Smith B, Joubert B. Grey go-away birds & gular flutter. 2015. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8mkrd83SAa0. Accessed 24 Oct 2016.

  • Marts K. Juvenile white ibis exhibit gular fluttering sea pines. 2015. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S572YOLG9Vc. Accessed 24 Oct 2016.

  • Marts K. Young anhinga does gular fluttering. 2016. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mbtYLUGnQ38. Accessed 24 Oct 2016.

  • Mason JR, Clark L. The chemical senses in birds. In: Whittow GC, editor. Sturkie’s avian physiology. 5th ed. San Diego, CA: Academic; 2000. p. 39–56.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Matsuo K, Palmer JB. Anatomy and physiology of feeding and swallowing—normal and abnormal. Phys Med Rehabil Clin N Am. 2008;19(4):691–707.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • McKechnie AE, Smit B, Whitfield MC, Noakes MJ, Talbot WA, Garcia M, Gerson AR, Wolf BO. Avian thermoregulation in the heat: evaporative cooling capacity in an archetypal desert specialist, Burchell’s sandgrouse (Pterocles burchelli). J Exp Biol. 2016;219:2137–44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McLelland J. Digestive system. In: King AS, McLelland J, editors. Form and function in birds, vol. 1. London: Academic Press; 1979. p. 69–181.

    Google Scholar 

  • McLelland J. Larynx and trachea. In: King AS, McLelland J, editors. Form and function in birds, vol. IV. London: Academic Press; 1989. p. 69–103.

    Google Scholar 

  • McLelland J. Apparatus digestorius [Systema alimentarium]. In: Baumel JJ, King AS, Beazile JE, Evans HE, Vanden Berge J, editors. Handbook of avian anatomy: Nomina Anatomica Avium. 2nd ed. Cambridge, MA: Publications of the Nuttall Ornithological Club No. 123; 1993. p. 301–27.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meyers RA, Myers RR. Mandibular bowing and mineralization in Brown Pelicans. Condor. 2005;107(2):445–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Midtgård U. The rete tibiotarsale and arteriovenous associations in the hind limbs of birds: a comparative morphological study on counter-current heat exchange systems. Acta Zool. 1981;62:67–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Midtgård U. Blood vessels and the occurrence of arteriovenous anastomoses in cephalic heat loss areas of mallards, Anas platyrhynchos (Aves). Zoomorphology. 1984;104:323–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Midtgård U. The peripheral circulatory system in birds: a morphological and physiological study of some adaptations to temperature regulation [Ph.D. dissertation]. Copenhagen, Denmark: University of Copenhagen; 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  • Midtgård U. Comparative morphology of the avian circulatory system. In: Ouellet H, editor. Acta XIX Congressus Internationalis Ornithologici, vol. II. Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press; 1988. p. 2445–54.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ming LT. Grey herons—panting and preening. 2014. YouTube. http://www.besgroup.org/2014/03/27/grey-herons-panting-and-preening/#more. Accessed 24 Oct 2016.

  • Moriyama K, Okanoya K. Effect of beak movement in singing Bengalese finches (Lonchura striata var. domestica). J Acoust Soc Am. 1996;100(4):2643.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Naples VL. The morphology and function of the hyoid region in the tree sloths, Bradypus and Choloepus. J Mammal. 1986;67(4):712–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Naples VL. Morphology, evolution and function of feeding in the giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla). J Zool (Lond). 1999;249:19–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson BS, Beckers GJL, Suthers RA. Vocal tract filtering and sound radiation in a songbird. J Exp Biol. 2005;208(2):297–308.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nickel R, Schummer A, Seiferle E, Siller WG, Wight PAL. Anatomy of the domestic birds. Berlin: Verlag Paul Parey; 1977.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nickel R, Schummer A, Seiferle E, Frewein J, Wilkens H, Wille K-H. The locomotor system of the domestic mammals. Berlin: Verlag Paul Parey; 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nottebohm F. Phonation in the Orange-winged Amazon Parrot, Amazona amazonica. J Comp Physiol A. 1976;108:157–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nuijens FW, Bout RG. The role of two jaw ligaments in the evolution of passerines. Zoology. 1998;101(1):24–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nuijens FW, Zweers GA. Characters discriminating two seed husking mechanisms in finches (Fringillidae: Carduelinae) and Estrildids (Passeridae: Estrildinae). J Morphol. 1997;232:1–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nuijens FW, Hoek AC, Bout RG. The role of the postorbital ligament in the zebra finch (Taeniopygia guttata). Neth J Zool. 2000;50(1):75–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ohms VR, Snelderwaard PC, ten Cate C, Beckers GJL. Vocal tract articulation in zebra finches. PLoS One. 2010;5(7):e11923. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0011923.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ohms VR, Beckers GJL, ten Cate C, Suthers RA. Vocal tract articulation revisited: the case of the monk parakeet. J Exp Biol. 2012;215(1):85–92.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Olsen AM, Westneat MW. Linkage mechanisms in the vertebrate skull: structure and function of three-dimensional, parallel transmission systems. J Morphol. 2016;277(12):1570–83. doi:10.1002/jmor.20596.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Osborn ML, Homberger DG. The human shoulder suspension apparatus: a causal explanation for bilateral asymmetry and a fresh look at the evolution of human bipedality. Anat Rec. 2015;298(9):1572–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paton DC, Collins BG. Bill and tongues of nectar-feeding birds: a review of morphology, function and performance, with intercontinental comparisons. Aust J Ecol. 1989;14(4):473–506.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patterson DK, Pepperberg IM. A comparative study of human and parrot phonation: acoustic and articulatory correlates of vowels. J Acoust Soc Am. 1994;96(2, Part 1):634–48.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Patterson DK, Pepperberg IM. Acoustic and articulatory correlates of stop consonants in a parrot and a human subject. J Acoust Soc Am. 1998;103(4):2197–215.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Patterson DK, Pepperberg IM, Story BH, Hoffman EA. How parrots talk: insights based on CT scans, image processing and mathematical models. Proc SPIE. 1997;3033:14–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peat CM, Gaunt AS. Mechanics of drinking in doves. Lawrence (KS): abstracts of Posters and Lectures of the 102nd stated meeting of the American Ornithologists’ Union, No. 129. 1984.

    Google Scholar 

  • Porter WMR, Witmer LM. Avian cephalic vascular anatomy, sites of thermal exchange, and the rete ophthalmicum. Anat Rec. 2016;299(11):1461–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Powell IL, Jones KL, Carpenter JH, Tully TN. Captive Hispaniolan Parrots (Amazona ventralis) can discriminate between experimental foods with sodium concentrations found in Amazonian mineral licks. Wilson J Ornithol. 2017;129(1):1818–185.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rafferty KL, Herring SW. Craniofacial sutures: morphology, growth, and in vivo masticatory strains. J Morphol. 1999;242:167–79.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rauch N. Struktur der Lautäusserungen eines Sprache imitierenden Graupapageis (Psittacus erithacus L.). Behaviour. 1978;66(1–2):65–104.

    Google Scholar 

  • Redd TC, Dubansky BH, Osborn ML, Tully TN, Homberger DG. A registration algorithm for the identification of individual parrots based on the patterns of filing ridges on their upper bill tip. Intl J Biometrics Bioinform (IJBB). 2012;6(3):68–91. http://www.cscjournals.org/journals/IJBB/issue-manuscripts.php?v=6&i=3

  • Reiss KZ. Feeding in myrmecophagous mammals. In: Schwenk K, editor. Feeding: form, function, and evolution in tetrapod vertebrates. San Diego, CA: Academic; 2000. p. 459–85.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Richards LP, Bock WJ. Functional anatomy and the adaptive evolution of the feeding apparatus in the Hawaiian honeycreeper Genus Loxops (Drepanididae). Ornithol Monogr. 1973;15:1–173.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rico-Guevara A. Morphology and function of the drinking apparatus in hummingbirds [Ph.D. dissertation]. Storrs, CT: University of Connecticut; 2014.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rico-Guevara A, Rubega MA. The hummingbird tongue is a fluid trap, not a capillary tube. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2011;108(23):9356–60.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rico-Guevara A, Fan T-H, Rubega MA. Hummingbird tongues are elastic micropumps. Proc R Soc B. 2015;282(1813):1–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Riede T, Goller F. Peripheral mechanisms for vocal production in birds—differences and similarities to human speech and singing. Brain Lang. 2010a;115(1):69–80.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Riede T, Goller F. Functional morphology of the sound-generating labia in the syrinx of two songbird species. J Anat. 2010b;216(1):23–36.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Riede T, Goller F. Morphological basis for the evolution of acoustic diversity in oscine songbirds. Proc R Soc B. 2014;281:20132306. doi:10.1098/rspb.2013.2306.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Riede T, Suthers RA. Vocal tract motor patterns and resonance during constant frequency song: the white-throated sparrow. J Comp Physiol A. 2009;195:183–92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Riede T, Schilling N, Goller F. The acoustic effect of vocal tract adjustments in zebra finches. J Comp Physiol A. 2013;199:57–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Riede T, Forstmeier W, Kempenaers B, Goller F. The functional morphology of male courtship dispalys in the Pectoral Sandpiper (Calidris melanotos). Auk. 2015;132(1):65–77.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Riede T, Beckers GJL, Blevins W, Suthers RA. Inflation of the esophagus and vocal tract filtering in ring doves. J Exp Biol. 2004;207(23):4025–36.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Riede T, Suthers RA, Fletcher NH, Blevins WE. Songbirds tune their vocal tract to the fundamental frequency of their song. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006;103(14):5543–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Riede T, Eliason CM, Miller EH, Goller F, Clarke JA. Coos, booms, and hoots: the evolution of closed-mouth vocal behavior in birds. Evolution. 2016;70(8):1734–46.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rubega MA, Obst BS. Surface-tension feeding in phalaropes: discovery of a novel feeding mechanism. Auk. 1993;110(2):169–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sağsöz H, Erdoğan S, Akbalik ME. Histomorphological structure of the palate and histochemical profiles of the salivary palatine glands in the Chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar, Gray 1830). Acta Zool. 2013;94:382–91.

    Google Scholar 

  • Salmons S. Muscle. In: Williams PL, editor. Gray’s anatomy. 38th ed. New York: Churchill Livingston; 1995. p. 737–900.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scarr G. Biotensegrity: the structural basis of life. Pencaitland, Scotland: Handspring Publishing; 2014.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt MF, Wild JM. The respiratory-vocal system of songbirds: anatomy, physiology, and neural control. Prog Brain Res. 2014;212:297–335. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-63488-7.00015-X.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt-Nielsen K. Desert animals: physiological problems of heat and water. London: Oxford University Press; 1964.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schummer A, Nickel R, Sack WO. The viscera of the domestic mammals. 2nd ed. Berlin: Verlag Paul Parey; 1979.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwenk K. An introduction to tetrapod feeding. In: Schwenk K, editor. Feeding: form, function, and evolution in tetrapod vertebrates. San Diego, CA: Academic; 2000. p. 21–61.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Scott JE, Hogue AS, Ravosa MJ. The adaptive significance of mandibular symphyseal fusion in mammals. J Evol Biol. 2012;25(4):661–73. doi:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2012.02457.x.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shields RT. On the development of tendon sheaths. Contrib Embryol. 1923;25(73):53–61 & 1 plate.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singh R, Kumar A, Lehana P. Investigations of the quality of speech imitated by Alexandrine Parrot (Psittacula eupatria). Circuits Syst Signal Process. 2016;35(11):2292–314. doi:10.1007/s00034-016-0395-3.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shufeldt RW. The myology of the raven (Corvus corax sinuatus): a guide to the study of the musculature system in birds. London: Macmillan; 1890.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skieresz-Szewczyk K, Jackowiak H. Morphofunctional study of the tongue in the domestic duck (Anas platyrhynchos f. domestica, Anatidae): LM and SEM study. Zoomorphology. 2016:135–255. doi:10.1007/s00435-016-0302-2.

  • Soons J, Herrel A, Genbrugge A, Adriaens D, Aerts P, Dirckx J. Multi-layered bird beaks: a finite-element approach towards the role of keratin in stress dissipation. J R Soc Interface. 2012;9(73):1787–96. doi:10.1098/rsif.2011.0910.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Starck JM. Comparative anatomy of the external middle ear of palaeognathous birds. Adv Anat Embryol Cell Biol. 1995;131:1–137.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Susi FR. Keratinization in the mucosa of the ventral surface of the chicken tongue. J Anat. 1969;105(3):477–86.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Suthers RA. Peripheral vocal mechanisms in birds: are songbirds special? Neth J Zool. 2001;51(2):217–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Suthers RA. Vocal mechanisms in birds and bats: a comparative view. An Acad Bras Cienc. 2004;76(2):247–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Suthers RA, Goller F. Motor correlations of vocal diversity in songbirds. In: Nolan V, Ketterson ED, Thompson CF, editors. Current ornithology, vol. 14. New York, NY: Plenum Press; 1997. p. 235–88.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Suthers RA, Zollinger SA. From brain to song: the vocal organ and vocal tract. In: Zeigler HP, Marler P, editors. Neuroscience of birdsong. Cambridge, NY: Cambridge University; 2008. p. 78–98.

    Google Scholar 

  • Suthers RA, Rothgerber JR, Jensen KK. Lingual articulation in songbirds. J Exp Biol. 2016;219(4):491–500.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Symonds MRE, Tattersall GJ. Geographical variation in bill size across birds species provides evidence for Allen’s rule. Am Nat. 2010;176(2):188–97.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tachibana T, Tsutsui K. Neuropeptide control of feeding behavior in birds and its difference with mammals. Front Neurosci. 2016;10:485. doi:10.3389/fnins.2016.00485.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Tattersall GJ, Andrade DV, Abe AS. Heat exchange from the toucan bill reveals a controllable vascular thermal radiator. Science. 2009;325(5939):468–70. doi:10.1126/science.1175553.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas DH, Robin AP. Comparative studies of thermoregulatory and osmoregulatory behaviour and physiology of five species of sandgrouse (Aves: Pterocliidae) (sic!) in Morocco. J Zool (Lond). 1977;183:229–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thorpe WH. Talking birds and the mode of action of the vocal apparatus of birds. Proc Zool Soc London. 1959;132(3):441–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Titze IR. Principles of voice production. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc; 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tomlinson CAB. Feeding in paleognathous birds. In: Schwenk K, editor. Feeding: form, function, and evolution in tetrapod vertebrates. San Diego, CA: Academic Press; 2000. p. 395–4.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trunov VL, Korzun LP, Dzerzhinsky FYA. Morpho-functional features of feeding adaptations in barbets (Megalaima, Capitonidae). Bull Moscow Nat Chall. 1996;101(5):39–49. [in Russian]

    Google Scholar 

  • Turnbull R. Cormorant gular flutter. 2015. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ge1U1beHwAE. Accessed 24 Oct 2016.

  • Vanden Berge JC, Zweers GA. Myologia. In: Baumel JJ, King AS, Breazile JE, Evans HE, Vanden-Berge J, editors. Handbook of avian anatomy: Nomina Anatomica Avium. 2nd ed. Cambridge, MA: Publications of the Nuttall Ornithological Club No. 123; 1993. p. 301–27.

    Google Scholar 

  • van den Heuvel WF. Kinetics of the skull in the chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus). Neth J Zool. 1991;42(4):561–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van den Heuvel JW, Berkhoudt H. Pecking in the chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus): motion analysis and sterotypy. Neth J Zool. 1998;48(3):273–303.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van der Leeuw AHJ, Kurk K, Snelderwaard PC, Bout RG, Berkhoudt H. Conflicting demands on the trophic system of Anseriformes and their evolutionary implications. Anim Biol. 2003;53(3):259–301.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van Gennip EMSJ. The osteology, arthrology and myology of the jaw apparatus of the pigeon (Columba livia L.). Neth J Zool. 1986;36(1):1–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van Hemert C, Handel CM, Blake JE, Swor RM, O’Hara TM. Microanatomy of passerine hard-cornified tissues: beak and claw structure of the black-capped chickadee (Poecile atricapillus). J Morphol. 2012;273(2):226–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vogel S. Comparative biomechanics: life’s physical world. 2nd ed. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press; 2013.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker WF, Homberger DG. A study of the cat, with references to human beings. 5th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders College Publishing; 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walsh MT, Mays MC. Clinical manifestations of cervicocephalic air sacs in psittacines. Comp Cont Educ. 1984;6(9):783–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Warren DK, Pepperberg IM. Cineradiographic analysis of the mechanisms of vowel production in an African Grey Parrot, Psittacus erithacus. Am Zool. 1993;33(5):107A.

    Google Scholar 

  • Warren DK, Patterson DK, Pepperberg IM. Mechanisms of American English vowel production in a Grey Parrot (Psittacus erithacus). Auk. 1996;113(1):41–58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weathers WW, Caccamise DF. Temperature regulation and water requirements of the Monk Parakeet, Myiopsitta monachus. Oecologia. 1975;18:329–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weathers WW, Schoenbaechler DC. Regulation of body temperature in the budgerygah, Melopsittacus undulatus. Aust J Zool. 1976;24:39–47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Westneat MW, Long JH, Hoese W, Nowicki S. Kinematics of birdsong: functional correlation of cranial movements and acoustic features in sparrows. J Exp Biol. 1993;182(1):147–71.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • White SS. Movements of the larynx during crowing in the domestic cock. J Anat. 1968;103(2):390–2.

    Google Scholar 

  • White SS. Mechanisms involved in deglutition in Gallus domesticus. J Anat. 1969;104(1):177.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • White SS. Larynx. In: King AS, editor. Aves respiratory system, p. 1891–1997. In: Getty R, editor. Sisson’s and Grossman’s the anatomy of the domestic animals, 5th ed. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders; 1975. p. 1883–1918.

    Google Scholar 

  • White SS, Chubb JC. The muscles and movements of the larynx of Gallus domesticus. J Anat. 1968;102(3):575.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wild JM. Descending projections of the songbird nucleus robustus archistriatalis. J Comp Neurol. 1993;338(2):225–41.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wild JM, Krützfeldt NOE. Trigeminal and telencephalic projections to jaw and other upper vocal tract premotor neurons in songbirds: sensorimotor circuitry for beak movements during singing. J Comp Neurol. 2012;520(3):590–605.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Williams H. Choreography of song, dance and beak movements in the zebra finch (Taeniopygia guttata). J Exp Biol. 2001;204(20):3497–506.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yap F. Savanna nightjar—gular fluttering. 2011. YouTube. http://www.besgroup.org/2011/09/01/savanna-nightjar-gular-fluttering/. Accessed 24 Oct 2016.

  • Zhang G, Li C, Li B, Larkin DM, Lee C, Storz JF, Antunes A, Greenwold MJ, Meredith RW, Ödeen A, Cui J, Zhou Q, Xu L, Pan H, Wang Z, Jin L, Zhang P, Hu H, Yang W, Hu J, Xiao J, Yang Z, Liu Y, Xie Q, Yu H, Lian J, Wen P, Zhang F, Li H, Zeng Y, Xiong Z, Liu S, Zhou L, Huang Z, An N, Wang J, Zheng Q, Xiong Y, Wang G, Wang B, Wang J, Fan Y, da Fonseca RR, Alfaro-Núñez A, Schubert M, Orlando L, Mourier T, Howard JT, Ganapathy G, Pfenning AR, Whitney O, Rivas MV, Hara E, Smith J, Farré M, Narayan J, Slavov G, Romanov MV, Borges R, Machado JP, Khan I, Springer MS, Gatesy J, Hoffmann FG, Opazo JC, Håsted O, Sawyer RH, Kim H, Kim K-W, Kim HJ, Cho S, Li N, Huang Y, Bruford MW, Zhan X, Dixon A, Bertelsen MF, Derryberry EP, Warren W, Wilson RK, Li S, Ray DA, Green RE, O’Brien SJ, Griffin D, Johnson WE, Haussler D, Ryder OA, Willerslev E, Graves GR, Alström P, Fjeldså J, Mindell DP, Edwards SV, Braun EL, Rahbek C, Burt DW, Houde P, Zhang Y, Yang H, Wang J, Jarvis ED, Gilbert MTP, Wang J. Comparative genomics reveals insights into avian genome evolution and adaptation. Science. 2014;346(6215):1311–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ziswiler V. Zur Kenntnis des Samenöffnens und der Struktur des hörnernen Gaumens bei körnerfressenden Oscines. J Ornithol. 1965;106(1):1–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ziswiler V. Adaptive Radiation innerhalb der Prachtfinkengattung Erythrura Swainson. Rev Suisse Zool. 1969;76:1095–105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ziswiler V. Zungenfunktionen und Zungenversteifung bei granivoren Singvögeln. Rev Suisse Zool. 1979;86(4):823–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ziswiler V, Trnka V. Tastkörperchen im Schlundbereich der Vögel. Rev Suisse Zool. 1972;79(Suppl):307–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ziswiler V, Güttinger HR, Bregulla H. Monographie der Gattung Erythrura Swainson, 1837 (Aves, Passeres, Estrildidae). Bonn Zool Monogr. 1972;2:1–158.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zubkova EN, Korzun LP. Morphofunctional aspects of the trophic specialization of the frugivorous green broadbill Calyptomena viridis (Passeriformes, Eurylaimidae): a comparative analysis. Biol Bull. 2014;41(9):788–800.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zusi RL. Patterns of diversity in the avian skull. In: Hanken J, Hall BK, editors. The skull, Patterns of structural and systematic diversity, vol. 2. Chicago: University of Chicago Press; 1993. p. 259–437.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zweers GA. Structure, movement, and myography of the feeding apparatus of the mallard (Anas platyrhynchos L.): a study in functional anatomy. Neth J Zool. 1974;24(4):323–467.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zweers G. The feeding system of the pigeon (Columba livia L.). Adv Anat Embryol Cell Biol. 1982a;73:1–108.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zweers GA. Pecking of the pigeon (Columba livia L.). Behavior. 1982b;81(2–4):173–230.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zweers GA. Drinking of the pigeon (Columba livia L.). Behaviour. 1982c;80(3–4):274–317.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zweers GA. Behavioural mechanisms of avian drinking. Neth J Zool. 1992;42(1):60–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zweers GA, Berkhoudt H. Larynx and pharynx of crows (Corvus corone L. and C. monedula L., Passeriformes: Corvidae). Neth J Zool. 1987;37(3–4):365–93.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zweeers GA, Berkhoudt H, Vanden Berge JC. Behavioral mechanisms of avian feeding. In: Bels VL, Chardon M, Vandewalla P, editors. Comparative and environmental physiology, vol 18: Biomechanics of feeding in vertebrates. Berlin: Springer; 1994. p. 241–79.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Zweers GA, Gerritsen AFC, van Kraanenburg-Voogd HJ. Mechanics of feeding of the mallard (Anas platyrhynchos L.; Aves, Anseriformes): the lingual apparatus and the suction-pressure pump mechanism of straining. In: Hecht MK, Szalay FS, editors. Contributions to vertebrate evolution, vol. 3. Basel: S. Karger; 1977. p. 1–109.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zweers GA, van Pelt HC, Beckers A. Morphology and mechanics of the larynx of the pigeon (Columba livia L.): a drill-chuck system (Aves). Zoomorphology. 1981;99(1):37–96.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zweers GA, de Jong F, Berkhoudt H, Vanden Berge JC. Filter feeding in flamingos (Phoenicopterus ruber). Condor. 1995;97(2):297–324.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Biological Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, 70803-1715, USA

    Dominique G. Homberger

Authors
  1. Dominique G. Homberger
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Dominique G. Homberger .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Zoology, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa

    John N. Maina

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2017 Springer International Publishing AG

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Homberger, D.G. (2017). The Avian Lingual and Laryngeal Apparatus Within the Context of the Head and Jaw Apparatus, with Comparisons to the Mammalian Condition: Functional Morphology and Biomechanics of Evaporative Cooling, Feeding, Drinking, and Vocalization. In: Maina, J. (eds) The Biology of the Avian Respiratory System. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-44153-5_2

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation