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AlphaGo, Locked Strategies, and Eco-cognitive Openness

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Eco-Cognitive Computationalism

Part of the book series: Cognitive Systems Monographs ((COSMOS,volume 43))

Abstract

In 2015, Google DeepMind’s program AlphaGo (able to perform the famous Go game) beat Fan Hui, the European Go champion and a 2 dan (out of 9 dan) professional, five times out of five with no handicap on a full size 19 \(\times \) 19 board.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    The AI research on these topics also favored the formation, in two philosophy departments, of the following facilities: the Computational Epistemology Laboratory (http://cogsci.uwaterloo.ca/) headed by P. Thagard at the University of Waterloo, Canada and the Computational Philosophy Laboratory (http://www-3.unipv.it/webphilos_lab/wordpress/), headed by myself at the University of Pavia, Italy, both devoted to research into computer science, cognitive science, and related areas of philosophy.

  2. 2.

    Classical volumes where the reader can find the illustration of the most important research and of some historical machine discovery programs are Langley et al. (1987) and Shrager and Langley (1990). Cf. also Zytkow (1992)  (Proceedings of MD-92 Workshop on “Machine Discovery”), and Colton (1999) (Proceedings  of AISB’99).

  3. 3.

    The proceedings are still available online https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235198935_Working_Notes_of_the_1990_Spring_Symposium_on_Automated_Abduction..

  4. 4.

    A review of the classical AI approaches to abduction (mainly based on logic programming) is given by Paul (2000) and (Bylander et al. 1991; Reiter 1987; Kleer and Williams 1987; Reggia et al. 1983) (set covering approaches). Other classical programs regarding discovery in science are illustrated by Valdés-Pérez (1999): MECHEM (reaction mechanisms in chemistry (Zeigarnik et al. 1997)), ARROSMITH (intertwining between drugs or dietary aspects and diseases in medicine (Swanson and Smalheiser 1997)), GRAFFITI (generation of conjectures in graph theory and other mathematical areas (Fajtlowicz 1988)), MDP/KINSHIP (determination of classes within a classification in linguistics (Pericliev et al. 1998)).

  5. 5.

    A rich survey of the intertwining between computation and scientific explanation and abductive discovery is illustrated in Thagard and Litt (2008).

  6. 6.

    A simple neural network has been used to build the computational program ECHO (Explanatory Coherence) regarding that part of abduction that concerns the process of hypothesis evaluation (Thagard 1989, 1992).

  7. 7.

    A survey about the importance of models in abductive cognition is illustrated in Figueroa (2012).

  8. 8.

    The need of a plurality of representations was already clear at the time of classical AI formalisms, when I was collaborating with AI researchers to implement a Knowledge-Based System (KBS) able to develop medical abductive reasoning (Ramoni et al. 1992).

  9. 9.

    AlphaGo Zero is a version of DeepMinds Go software AlphaGo; the recent AlphaZero, that learns from games autonomously played, further enriches AlphaGo Zero, cf. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AlphaZero.

  10. 10.

    The prepredicative world is not yet characterized by predications, values, empirical manipulations, and techniques of measurement as instead the Husserl’s prescientific world is.

  11. 11.

    On the role of adumbrations in the genesis of ideal space and on their abductive and nonmonotonic character cf. Sect. 3.2.3. An interesting article   (Overgaard and Grünbaum 2007) deals with the relationship between perceptual intentionality, agency, and bodily movement and acknowledges the abductive role of adumbrations. In the remaining part of this section I will try to clarify their meaning.

  12. 12.

    Cf. also  (Husserl 1931, Sect. 40, p. 129) [originally published in 1913].

  13. 13.

    Husserl uses the terms “kinestetic sensations” and “kinesthetic sequences” to denote the subjective awareness of position and movement in order to distinguish it from the position and movement of perceived objects in space. On some results of neuroscience that corroborate and improve several phenomenological intuitions cf. (Pachoud 1999, pp. 211–216),   Barbaras (1999), and Petit (1999).

  14. 14.

    The ego itself is only constituted thanks to the capabilities of movement and action.

  15. 15.

    On Grush’s approach cf. the detailed discussion illustrated in (Clark (2008, chapter seven)) in the framework of the theory of the extended mind; a treatment of current cognitive theories, such as the sensorimotor theory of perception, which implicitly furnish a scientific account of the phenomenological concept of anticipation, is given in chapter eight of the same book. A detailed treatment of recent neuroscience achievements which confirms the abductive character of perception is given in the article “Vision, thinking, and model-based inferences” (Raftopoulos 2017), recently published in the Handbook of Model-Based Science (Magnani and Bertolotti 2017).

  16. 16.

    Cf. Wikipedia, entry Go (game) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go_(game).

  17. 17.

    An expressive adjective still used by Husserl (1978). Translated by D. Carr and originally published in The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology .

  18. 18.

    This expression, I have extendedly used in Magnani (2001), is derived from Hutchins,  who introduced the expression “mediating structure”, which regards external tools and props that can be constructed to cognitively enhance the activity of navigating. Written texts are trivial examples of a cognitive “mediating structure” with clear cognitive purposes, so mathematical symbols, simulations, and diagrams, which often become “epistemic mediators”, because related to the production of scientific results: “Language, cultural knowledge, mental models, arithmetic procedures, and rules of logic are all mediating structures too. So are traffic lights, supermarkets layouts, and the contexts we arrange for one another’s behavior. Mediating structures can be embodied in artifacts, in ideas, in systems of social interactions [...]” (Hutchins 1995 pp. 290–291)  that function as an enormous new source of information and knowledge.

  19. 19.

    Cf. Wikipedia entry Go (game) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go_(game).

  20. 20.

    I have furnished more cognitive and technical details to explain this result in (Magnani 2016).

  21. 21.

    Of course, many of the strategies of a good player are already mentally present thanks to the experience of several previous games.

  22. 22.

    Many interesting examples can be found in the recent (Magnani and Bertolotti 2017).

  23. 23.

    It is necessary to select from pre-stored diagnostic hypotheses.

  24. 24.

    Obviously, for example, new rules and new boards can be proposed, so realizing new types of game, but this chance does not jeopardize my argumentation.

  25. 25.

    Some notes on the area of the so-called automated scientific discovery in AI cf. (Magnani (2009, Chap. 2, Sect. 2.7 “Automatic Abductive Scientists”)).

  26. 26.

    Date of access August 19th, 2021.

  27. 27.

    Relatively recent bibliographic references can be found in my book (Magnani 2007).

  28. 28.

    On this problem and other negative epistemological use of computational programs, cf. the recent (Calude and Longo 2017).

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Magnani, L. (2022). AlphaGo, Locked Strategies, and Eco-cognitive Openness. In: Eco-Cognitive Computationalism. Cognitive Systems Monographs, vol 43. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-81447-2_3

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