Abstract
Turkey has had seven referendums since 1961, originally for seeking popular consent for the new constitutions of 1961 and 1982. The last five referendums functioned as tools for promoting the political agenda of the ruling political parties and their leaders, as these parties and leaders seemed to have aimed at changing the rules of the political game while attempting to eliminate the challenges and resistance from the opposition. Although the 1987 and 1988 referendums failed to aid the governing parties, the last three referendums resulted in changing the regime of the country from democratic semi-parliamentarism to semi-presidentialism first (in 2007) and eventually to an unchecked authoritarian presidentialism. The outcome of the 16 April 2017 Referendum was determined by partisanship in a highly conflictual polarized political milieu, which occurred under the influence of emergency measures, curtailed opposition, scuppered media and produced a regime that resembled nothing less than neo-patrimonial sultanism.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
- 1.
‘Örtülü harcama patladı’, Sözcü, March 16, 2017, https://www.sozcu.com.tr/2017/ekonomi/ortulu-harcama-patladi-1737160/ and ‘Örtülü Harcamada Yine Rekor’, Birgün, https://www.birgun.net/haber-detay/ortulu-harcamada-yine-rekor-165001.html.
- 2.
- 3.
The emergency measures (OHAL) severely restricted criticism, freedom of expression, freedom of assembly and the media–press freedom and thus rendered the opposition’s campaign almost impossible to be heard and followed by large swaths of the population. For a more thorough explanation of the dysfunctional influences of the OHAL on the integrity of the referendum see ‘Turkey referendum: Key reactions’ BBC, April 17, 2017, available at: https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-39615403.
- 4.
For a comprehensive analysis of political legitimacy in the Turkish state, see Kalaycıoğlu (2005), Chapters 1 and 2.
- 5.
‘En büyük yapısal reform: Başkanlık’ (The greatest structural reform: Presidentialism) Hürriyet (daily), October 16, 2016, http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/ekonomi/en-buyuk-yapisal-reform-baskanlik-40250621.
- 6.
The mainstream media were forced by systematic pressure of AKP governments to change hands from their former proprietors to the cronies of the AKP government. State funds and bank credits by the state-owned banks, such as Ziraat Bank and Halk Bank were utilized to fund the takeover of the mainstream media from 2007 through to 2017. Eventually all of the major networks except for Fox TV and the Halk TV networks of the former mainstream media changed hands and became propaganda agencies of the AKP government, as did the Turkish Radio and Television (TRT). The Turkish elections surveys have indicated that most voters follow the TRT and some of the mainstream media for their political news and were thus exposed to ‘Yes’ campaign claims. These claims included such arguments that the ‘Yes’ vote would result in a form of Presidentialism that would bring more political stability, an end to the threat from violence, sustained and rapid economic growth and economic development, and a more representative form of government (see Bozdağ 2012; Balta 2015). At the time of writing, none of those claims had been substantiated by facts or any academic research in comparative politics.
- 7.
See: YSK. ‘Yurt İçi, Gümrük Kapısı Ve Yurt Dışı Sandıkları Anayasa Değişikliği Halkoylaması Sonuç Tutanağı’. Retrieved from: http://www.ysk.gov.tr/ysk/content/conn/YSKUCM/path/Contribution%20Folders/SecmenIslemleri/Secimler/2017HO/2017HO-Ornek135.pdf.
- 8.
- 9.
For a full report on the perceptions of the 2017 referendum in Europe see: https://www.osce.org/odihr/elections/turkey/324816; see BBC (2017).
Bibliography
Alessandri, E. (2010). Democratization and Europeanization in Turkey After the September 12 Referendum. Insight Turkey, 12(4), 23–30.
Anayasa-Der. (2017). Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Anayasası’nda Değişiklik Yapılmasına Dair Kanun (Üzerine Teknik Bilimsel Rapor). http://anayasader.org/turkiye-cumhuriyeti-anayasasinda-degisikli[k-yapilmasina-dair-kanun-teklifi/.
Atikcan, E. Ö., & Öge, K. (2012). Referendum Campaigns in Polarized Societies: The Case of Turkey. Turkish Studies, 13(3), 449–470.
Aydın Düzgit, S. (2010). Constitutional Referendum in Turkey: What Next? CEPS Commentary.
Aydın Düzgit, S., & Balta, E. (2017). Turkey after the July 15th Coup Attempt: When Elites Polarize over Polarization. Policy Report, Istanbul Policy Center.
Aytac, S. E., Carkoglu, A., & Yıldırım, K. (2017). Taking Sides: Determinants of Support for a Presidential System in Turkey. South European Society and Politics, 22(1), 9–16.
Balta, E. (31 March 2015). Başkanlık Sistemi Hakkında Doğru Bilinen Yanlışlar. (What are believed to be right for the Presidential System that are actually wrong) Birikim (weekly paper). http://www.birikimdergisi.com/haftalik/1422/baskanlik-sistemi-hakkinda-dogru-bilinen-yanlislar#.XHZ1PPkzYdU.
BBC. (2017, April 17). Turkey Referendum: Key Reactions. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-39615403.
Bozdağ, B. (2012). Başkanlık Sistemini, Siyasal İstikrarın Sürekli Olması İçin İstiyoruz (We want Presidentialism for sustainable stability). https://www.haberler.com/bozdag-baskanlik-sistemini-siyasal-istikrarin-4114902-haberi/.
Bozlağan, R. (2017). Interview at Milliyet Newspaper (daily). http://www.milliyet.com.tr/prof-dr-bozlagan-yeni-anayasa-ve-baskanlik-istanbul-yerelhaber-1250219/.
Baslevent, C., & Kirmanoglu, H. (2015). Economic Voting in Turkey: Perceptions, Expectations, and the Party Choice. Research and Policy on Turkey, 1(1), 88–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/23760818.2015.1099784.
Baslevent, C., Kirmanoglu, H., & Senatalar, B. (2005). Empirical Investigation of Party Preferences and Economic Voting in Turkey. European Journal of Political Research, 44, 547–562.
Baslevent, C., Kirmanoglu, H., & Senatalar, B. (2009). Party Preferences and Economic Voting in Turkey (Now that the Crisis is Over). Party Politics, 15(3), 377–391.
Birgün. Örtülü Harcamada Yine Rekor. https://www.birgun.net/haber-detay/ortulu-harcamada-yine-rekor-165001.html.
Carkoğlu, A. (2007). The Nature of the Left-Right Ideological Self-Placement in the Turkish Context. Turkish Studies, 8(2), 253–271.
Carkoğlu, A. (2008). Ideology or Economic Pragmatism: Profiling Turkish Voters in 2007. Turkish Studies, 9(2), 317–344.
Carkoğlu, A., & Hinich, M. J. (2006). A Spatial Analysis of Turkish Party Preferences. Electoral Studies, 25, 369–392.
Carkoğlu, A., & Kalaycıoğlu, E. (2007). Turkish Democracy Today: Elections, Protest and Stability in an Islamic Society. London: I. B. Tauris.
Carkoğlu, A.‚ & Yildirim, K. (2015). “Election Storm in Turkey: What do the Elections of June and November 2015 Elections tell us?”. Insight Turkey‚ 27(4): 57–79.
Coskun, V. (2015). HDP Torn Between Violence and Politics. Insight Turkey, 17(4), 47–55.
Downs, A. (1957). An Economic Theory of Democracy. New York: Harper.
Esen, B., & Gümüşçü, Ş. (2017). A Small Yes for Presidentialism: The Turkish Constitutional Referendum of April 2017. South European Society and Politics. https://doi.org/10.1080/13608746.2017.1384341.
Esmer, Y. (1999). Devrim, evrim, statüko: Türkiye’de sosyal, siyasal, ekonomik değerler. İstanbul: TESEV.
EEAS. (2017). Statement on the Referendum in Turkey. European Union External Action Webpage, Published on April 16, 2017. Available at https://eeas.europa.eu/headquarters/headquarters-homepage_en/24709/Statement%20on%20the%20referendum%20in%20Turkey.
European Commission. (2018, 17 April). Turkey 2018 Report. Retrieved from: https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-enlargement/sites/near/files/20180417-turkey-report.pdf.
Hazama, Y. (2007). Electoral Volatility in Turkey: Cleavages vs. the Economy. Tokyo, Japan: I.D.E. (Occasional Papers Series, no. 41).
Hürriyet. (2016, October 16). En büyük yapısal reform: Başkanlık. Hürriyet. http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/ekonomi/en-buyuk-yapisal-reform-baskanlik-40250621.
Kalaycıoğlu, E. (2005). Turkish Dynamics: Bridge Across Troubled Lands. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
Kalaycıoğlu, E. (2012). Kulturkampf in Turkey: The Constitutional Referendum of 12 September 2010. South European Politics and Society, 17(1), 1–22.
Kalaycıoğlu, E. (2013a). Turkish Party System: Leaders, Vote and Institutionalization. Southeast European and Black Sea Studies, 13(4), 483–502.
Kalaycıoğlu, E. (2013b). Türkiye’de Halk Oylamaları: Katılma mı? Yürütme Vesayeti mi? (Referendums in Turkey: Participation or Executive Tutelage?). In İ. G. Şen & B. S. Heinrich (Eds.), Demokrasi ve Siyasal Katılım (Democracy and Political Participation) (pp. 68–69). İstanbul: Ezgi Matbaası.
Kalaycıoğlu, E. (2015). Turkish Popular Presidential Elections: Deepening Legitimacy Issues and Looming Regime Change. South European Society and Politics, 20(2), 157–179.
Kalaycıoğlu, E. (2017). Two Elections and a Political Regime in Crisis: Turkish Politics at the Crosroads. Southeast European and Black Sea Studies. https://doi.org/10.1080/14683857.2017.1379148.
Kalaycıoğlu, E. (2018a). Two Elections and a Political Regime in crisis: Turkish Politics at the Crossroads. Southeast European and Black Sea Studies, 18(1), 21–51.
Kalaycıoğlu, E. (2018b, November 15–18). Domestic Politics, Public Opinion, and Foreign Policy: Case of Turkey, Paper prepared for presentation at the Middle Eastern Studies Association’s (MESA) Annual Conference at San Antonio, Texas, USA.
Kemahlioglu, O. (2015). Winds of Change? The June 2015 Parliamentary Election in Turkey. South European Society and Politics, 20(4), 445–464.
Key, V. O. (1966). The Responsible Electorate: Rationality in Presidential Voting 1936–1960. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Keyder, Ç. (1987). State and Class in Turkey: A Study in Capitalist Development. London and New York: Verso.
Keyder, Ç. (1994). The Agrarian Background and the Origins of the Turkish Bourgeoisie. In A. Öncü, Ç. Keyder, & S. E. Ebrahim (Eds.), Developmentalism and Beyond: Society and Politics in Egypt and Turkey. Cairo: American University of Cairo.
Kibris, A. (2010). Funerals and Elections: The Effects of Terrorism on Voting Behavior in Turkey. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 55(2), 220–247.
Kuzu, B. (2017). Interview at Milliyet Newspaper (daily). http://mekam.org/mekam/anayasa-komisyonu-baskani-burhan-kuzu-ile-baskanlik-sistemi-uzerine.
Öniş, Z. (1991). Political Economy of Turkey in the 1980s: An Anatomy of Unorthodox Liberalism. In M. Heper (Ed.), Strong State and Economic Interest Groups: The Post-1980 Turkish Experience. Berlin, New York: Walter de Gruyter.
Öniş, Z., & Türem, U. (2001). Business, Globalization and Democracy: A Comparative Analysis of Turkish Business Associations. Turkish Studies, 2(2), 94–120.
Özen, I. C., & Kalkan, K. (2017). Spatial Analysis of Contemporary Turkish Elections: A Comprehensive Approach. Turkish Studies, 18(2), 358–377.
Sözcü. (2017, March 16). Örtülü harcama patladı. https://www.sozcu.com.tr/2017/ekonomi/ortulu-harcama-patladi-1737160/.
Sayarı, S. (2016). Back to a Predominant Party System: The November 2015 Snap Election in Turkey. South European Society and Politics, 21(2), 263–280. https://doi.org/10.1080/13608746.2016.1170254.
The Guardian. (2017a, 17 April). Turkey vote Curtailed Fundamental Freedoms, say European Observers. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/apr/17/turkey-vote-referendum-curtailed-fundamental-freedoms-european-observers.
The Guardian. (2017b, 18 April). Turkey Should Investigate Referendum vote ‘Irregularities’, says EU Commission. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/apr/18/turkey-should-investigate-referendum-vote-irregularities-says-eu-commission.
Yıldırım, B. (2017). Campaign Speech. http://www.mynet.com/haber/politika/basbakan-yildirim-evet-cikacak-teror-orgutleri-bitecek-2914681–1.
Official Documents and Sources
OSCE. (2017‚ 22 June). “The republic of Turkey: Constitutional Referendum 16 April 2017” OSCE/ODIHR Limited Referendum Observation Mission Final Report. Poland: Warsaw.
The Supreme Election Council Archives. Available at www.ysk.gov.tr. Last accessed on 3 February 2019.
The Turkish Constitution. (1982). Available at https://global.tbmm.gov.tr/docs/constitution_en.pdf. Last accessed on 3 February 2019.
YSK. (2007, October 30). İllere göre Anayasa Değişikliği Halkoylaması Sonucu. Published. Retrieved from: http://www.ysk.gov.tr/doc/dosyalar/docs/2007Referandum/iller/turkiye.pdf.
YSK. (2010, September 22). İllere göre Anayasa Değişikliği Halkoylaması Sonucu. Retrieved from: http://www.ysk.gov.tr/doc/dosyalar/docs/2010Referandum/KesinSonuc/IlSonuclari.pdf.
YSK. (2017, April 27). İllere göre Anayasa Değişikliği Halkoylaması Sonucu. Retrieved from: http://www.ysk.gov.tr/doc/dosyalar/docs/2017Referandum/2017HO-Ornek134.pdf.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2021 The Author(s)
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Kalaycıoğlu, E., Kocapınar, G. (2021). Turkey’s Constitutional Referendum: The 16 April 2017 Referendum in Historical Perspective. In: Smith, J. (eds) The Palgrave Handbook of European Referendums . Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55803-1_19
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55803-1_19
Published:
Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-55802-4
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-55803-1
eBook Packages: Political Science and International StudiesPolitical Science and International Studies (R0)