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Hot Atmospheres of Galaxies, Groups, and Clusters of Galaxies

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Abstract

Most of the ordinary matter in the local Universe has not been converted into stars but resides in a largely unexplored diffuse, hot, X-ray emitting plasma. It pervades the gravitational potentials of massive galaxies, groups and clusters of galaxies, as well as the filaments of the cosmic web. The physics of this hot medium, such as its dynamics, thermodynamics and chemical composition can be studied using X-ray spectroscopy in great detail. Here, we present an overview of the basic properties and discuss the self similarity of the hot “atmospheres” permeating the gravitational halos from the scale of galaxies, through groups, to massive clusters. Hot atmospheres are stabilised by the activity of supermassive black holes and, in many ways, they are of key importance for the evolution of their host galaxies. The hot plasma has been significantly enriched in heavy elements by supernovae during the period of maximum star formation activity, probably more than 10 billion years ago. High resolution X-ray spectroscopy just started to be able to probe the dynamics of atmospheric gas and future space observatories will determine the properties of the currently unseen hot diffuse medium throughout the cosmic web.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    By convention, the temperature is often expressed in units of energy, as kT e, in kiloelectronvolts (keV).

  2. 2.

    The ion density, n i, of the plasma with Solar metallicity can be obtained by assuming n e∕n i ≃ 1.18.

  3. 3.

    This “entropy” is not exactly the same as the classical thermodynamical entropy s. Formally, the two quantities are related as s = k lnK 3∕2 + constant.

  4. 4.

    r Δ (with Δ = 200 or Δ = 500 as commonly found in the literature) corresponds to a radius within which the total matter density reaches Δ times the critical density of the Universe at the redshift of the system. Defined this way, r Δ can be associated with a “normalized” astrophysical radius common to each system, which takes self-similarity into account.

  5. 5.

    This assumption holds relatively well in the case of hot, massive clusters. However, as we have seen earlier, metal lines usually dominate the emissivity of cooler atmospheres pervading groups and ellipticals, which adds further complications to testing the predictions of self-similarity.

  6. 6.

    All elements heavier than H and He are usually called “metals” in astrophysics.

  7. 7.

    http://hubs.phys.tsinghua.edu.cn/en/index.html.

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Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the Lendület LP2016-11 grant awarded by the Hungarian Academy of Sciences.

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  1. MTA-Eötvös University Lendület Hot Universe Research Group, Budapest, Hungary

    Norbert Werner & François Mernier

  2. Department of Theoretical Physics and Astrophysics, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic

    Norbert Werner

  3. School of Science, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima, Japan

    Norbert Werner

  4. Eötvös University, Institute of Physics, Budapest, Hungary

    François Mernier

  5. SRON Netherlands Institute for Space Research, Utrecht, The Netherlands

    François Mernier

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  1. Astronomical Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Ondrejov, Czech Republic

    Petr Kabáth

  2. Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, La Laguna, Spain

    David Jones

  3. Department of Theoretical Physics and Astrophysics, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic

    Marek Skarka

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Werner, N., Mernier, F. (2020). Hot Atmospheres of Galaxies, Groups, and Clusters of Galaxies. In: Kabáth, P., Jones, D., Skarka, M. (eds) Reviews in Frontiers of Modern Astrophysics. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38509-5_10

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