Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Infection in Infertility

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Male Infertility

Abstract

Despite global overpopulation, human infertility is a growing concern since an increasing number of couples have problems to conceive a healthy child. Reasons for this remarkable decline are manifold and include socio-economic changes, changes in lifestyle with higher prevalence of obesity or environmental pollution. In general, data on the prevalence of infertility, i.e. the inability of a sexually active, non-contracepting couple to achieve pregnancy within 1 year’s time, vary considerably between 3% and 25%. Of these, an estimate of 15% of couples seek for medical assistance. Infertility is a couple problem as both male and female partner contribute more or less equally, with prevalence reported for male infertility between 30 and 50%. Approximately 7% of all men are confronted with fertility problems during their reproductive lifetime, thus making male infertility a significant problem. In contrast, the overall prevalence of diabetes mellitus, which is considered a common disease, was 2.8% in the year 2000 and estimated to be 4.4% in 2030. Potentially correctable causes of male infertility are genital tract infections, which play a major role in male infertility. Infections and inflammations are not only seriously affecting spermatogenesis and sperm transit during ejaculation as can be seen in clinical findings in cases of oligozoospermia (decreased number of sperm), asthenozoospermia (decreased sperm motility) or azoospermia (absence of sperm in the ejaculate) but also the cause of dysfunctional male accessory glands and significantly impaired sperm functions.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 139.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 199.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Mascarenhas MN, Flaxman SR, Boerma T, et al. National, regional, and global trends in infertility prevalence since 1990: a systematic analysis of 277 health surveys. PLoS Med. 2012;9:e1001356.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  2. Agarwal A, Mulgund A, Hamada A, Chyatte MR. A unique view on male infertility around the globe. Reprod Biol Endocrinol. 2015;13:37.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  3. Lutz W, O’Neill BC, Scherbov S. Demographics. Europe’s population at a turning point. Science. 2003;299:1991–2.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Skakkebaek NE, Jorgensen N, Main KM, et al. Is human fecundity declining? Int J Androl. 2006;29:2–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Sengupta P, Dutta S, Krajewska-Kulak E. The disappearing sperms: analysis of reports published between 1980 and 2015. Am J Mens Health. 2017;11:1279–304.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Pasquali R, Pelusi C, Genghini S, et al. Obesity and reproductive disorders in women. Hum Reprod Update. 2003;9:359–72.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Sallmen M, Sandler DP, Hoppin JA, et al. Reduced fertility among overweight and obese men. Epidemiology. 2006;17:520–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Foster WG, Neal MS, Han MS, et al. Environmental contaminants and human infertility: hypothesis or cause for concern? J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev. 2008;11:162–76.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. World Health Organization. Manual for the standardized investigation and diagnosis of the infertile couple. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University; 2000.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Dohle GR, Colpi GM, Hargreave TB, et al. EAU guidelines on male infertility. Eur Urol. 2005;48:703–11.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Henkel R. ROS and sperm DNA integrity – implications of male accessory gland infections. In: Giwercman A, Tournaye H, Björndahl L, Weidner W, editors. Clinical andrology, informa healthcare. London: Parthenon Publishing, Marcel Dekker, Taylor & Francis Medical; 2010. p. 324–8.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  12. Hull MG, Glazener CM, Kelly NJ, et al. Population study of causes, treatment, and outcome of infertility. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed). 1985;291:1693–7.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Nieschlag E, Behre HM. Andrology. Male reproductive health and dysfunction. 2nd ed. Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer; 2000.

    Google Scholar 

  14. Wild S, Roglic G, Green A, et al. Global prevalence of diabetes: estimates for the year 2000 and projections for 2030. Diabetes Care. 2004;27:1047–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. United Nations General Assembly. Universal Declaration of Human Rights (General Assembly resolution 217 A). 1948.

    Google Scholar 

  16. Weidner W, Krause W, Ludwig M. Relevance of male accessory gland infection for subsequent fertility with special focus on prostatitis. Hum Reprod Update. 1999;5:421–32.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Weidner W, Colpi GM, Hargreave TB, et al. EAU guidelines on male infertility. Eur Urol. 2002;42:313–22.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Schuppe HC, Meinhardt A, Allam JP, et al. Chronic orchitis: a neglected cause of male infertility? Andrologia. 2008;40:84–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Henkel R, Schill W-B. Sperm separation in patients with urogenital infections. Andrologia. 1998;30(Suppl 1):91–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Sanocka-Maciejewska D, Ciupinska M, Kurpisz M. Bacterial infection and semen quality. J Reprod Immunol. 2005;67:51–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Monga M, Roberts JA. Spermagglutination by bacteria: receptor-specific interactions. J Androl. 1994;15:151–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Eggert-Kruse W, Kiefer I, Beck C, et al. Role for tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) and interleukin 1-beta (IL-1beta) determination in seminal plasma during infertility investigation. Fertil Steril. 2007;87:810–23.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Henkel R, Maaß G, Jung A, et al. Age-related changes in seminal polymorphonuclear elastase in men with asymptomatic inflammation of the genital tract. Asian J Androl. 2007;9:299–304.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Moretti E, Capitani S, Figura N, et al. The presence of bacteria species in semen and sperm quality. J Assist Reprod Genet. 2009;26:47–56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Kiessling AA, Desmarais BM, Yin HZ, et al. Detection and identification of bacterial DNA in semen. Fertil Steril. 2008;90:1744–56.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Witkin SS. Immunological aspects of genital chlamydia infections. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 2002;16:865–74.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Kluytmans JAJW, Niesters HGM, Mouton JW, et al. Performance of a nonisotopic DNA probe for detection of chlamydia trachomatis in urogenital specimens. J Clin Microbiol. 1991;29:2685–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  28. Baczynska A, Svenstrup HF, Fedder J, Birkelund S, et al. Development of real-time PCR for detection of mycoplasma hominis. BMC Microbiol. 2004;4:35.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  29. Chalker VJ, Jordan K, Ali T, Ison C. Real-time PCR detection of the mg219 gene of unknown function of mycoplasma genitalium in men with and without non-gonococcal urethritis and their female partners in England. J Med Microbiol. 2009;58:895–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Jensen JS, Björnelius E, Dohn B, Lidbrink P. Use of TaqMan 5′ nuclease real-time PCR for quantitative detection of mycoplasma genitalium DNA in males with and without urethritis who were attendees at a sexually transmitted disease clinic. J Clin Microbiol. 2004;42:683–92.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  31. Twin J, Taylor N, Garland SM, Hocking JS, et al. Comparison of two mycoplasma genitalium real-time PCR detection methodologies. J Clin Microbiol. 2011;49:1140–2.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  32. Hardick J, Giles J, Hardick A, Hsieh YH, et al. Performance of the gen-probe transcription-mediated [corrected] amplification research assay compared to that of a multitarget real-time PCR for mycoplasma genitalium detection. J Clin Microbiol. 2006;44:1236–40.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  33. Knapp JS, Koumans EH. Neisseria and Branhamella. In: Murray PR, Baron EJ, Pfaller MA, Tenover FC, Yolken RH, editors. Manual of clinical microbiology. 7th ed. Washington, DC: American Society of Microbiology; 1999. p. 586–603.

    Google Scholar 

  34. Jephcott AE. Microbiological diagnosis of gonorrhoea. Genitourin Med. 1997;73:245–52.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  35. Naumenko V, Tyulenev Y, Kurilo L, Shileiko L, et al. Detection and quantification of human herpes viruses types 4-6 in sperm samples of patients with fertility disorders and chronic inflammatory urogenital tract diseases. Andrology. 2014;2:687–94.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Chen M, Cai LY, Kanno N, Kato T, et al. Detection of human herpesviruses (HHVs) in semen of human male infertile patients. J Reprod Dev. 2013;59:457–62.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  37. Jeremias J, Witkin SS. Molecular approaches to the diagnosis of male infertility. Mol Hum Reprod. 1996;2:195–202.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Gimenes F, Medina FS, Abreu AL, Irie MM, et al. Sensitive simultaneous detection of seven sexually transmitted agents in semen by multiplex-PCR and of HPV by single PCR. PLoS One. 2014;9:e98862.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  39. Hinz R, Schwarz NG, Hahn A, Frickmann H. Serological approaches for the diagnosis of schistosomiasis – a review. Mol Cell Probes. 2017;31:2–21.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Pomari E, Piubelli C, Perandin F, Bisoffi Z. Digital PCR: a new technology for diagnosis of parasitic infections. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2019 Jun 18. pii: S1198-743X(19)30316-7.

    Google Scholar 

  41. World Health Organization. Sexually transmitted infections fact sheet. Available from: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs110/en/. Last accessed 10 Jan 2019.

  42. Pellati D, Mylonakis I, Bertoloni G, et al. Genital tract infections and infertility. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2008;140:3–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Umapathy E, Simbini T, Chipata T, et al. Sperm characteristics and accessory sex gland functions in HIV-infected men. Arch Androl. 2001;46:153–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Le Tortorec A, Le Grand R, Denis H, et al. Infection of semen-producing organs by SIV during the acute and chronic stages of the disease. PLoS One. 2008;3:e1792.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  45. Baud D, Musso D, Vouga M, et al. Zika virus: a new threat to human reproduction. Am J Reprod Immunol. 2017;77(2). https://doi.org/10.1111/aji.12614. Epub 2016 Dec 14.

  46. Ahmad G, du Plessis SS, Agarwal A. (2017); Sexually transmitted infections and impact on male fertility. In: Gunasekaran K, Pandiyan N. (eds.), Male infertility, Chennai: Springer India, pp 167–183.

    Google Scholar 

  47. World Health Organization. Global prevalence and incidence of selected sexually transmitted diseases: overview and estimates. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2001.

    Google Scholar 

  48. Gonzales GF, Munoz G, Sanchez R, et al. Update on the impact of Chlamydia trachomatis infection on male fertility. Andrologia. 2004;36:1–23.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Parekattil S, Agarwal A. Infection in infertility. In: Parekattil S, Agarwal A, editors. Male infertility: contemporary clinical approaches. New York: Springer Science + Business Media; 2012.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  50. Rietmeijer CAM, Judson FN, van Hensbroek MB, et al. Unsuspected Chlamydia trachomatis infection in heterosexual men attending a sexually transmitted disease clinic: evaluation of risk factors and screening methods. Sex Transm Dis. 1991;18:28–35.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Gdoura R, Keskes-Ammar L, Bouzid F, et al. Chlamydia trachomatis and male infertility in Tunisia. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care. 2001;6:102–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Villegas H, Pinon M, Shor V, et al. Electron microscopy of Chlamydia trachomatis infection of the male genital tract. Arch Androl. 1991;27:117–26.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Kadar A, Bucsek M, Kardos M, et al. Detection of Chlamydia trachomatis in chronic prostatitis by in situ hybridization (preliminary methodological report). Orv Hetil. 1995;136:659–62.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Bornman MS, Ramuthaga TN, Mahomed MF, et al. Chlamydia infection in asymptomatic infertile men attending an andrology clinic. Arch Androl. 1998;41:203–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Ruijis GJ, Kauer FM, Jager S, et al. Epidemiological aspects of chlamydial infections and tubal abnormalities in infertile couples. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 1990;36(1–2):107–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Habermann B, Krause W. Altered sperm function or sperm antibodies are not associated with chlamydial antibodies in infertile men with leukocytospermia. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venerol. 1999;12:25–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Gallegos G, Ramos B, Santiso R, et al. Sperm DNA fragmentation in infertile men with genitourinary infection by Chlamydia trachomatis and Mycoplasma. Fertil Steril. 2008;90:328–34.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Mazzoli S, Cai T, Addonisio P, et al. Chlamydia trachomatis infection is related to poor semen quality in young prostatitis patients. Eur Urol. 2010;57(4):708–14. Epub 27 May 2009.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Vigil P, Morales P, Tapia A, et al. Chlamydia trachomatis infection in male partners of infertile couples: incidence and sperm function. Andrologia. 2002;34:155–61.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Kokab A, Akhondi MM, Sadeghi MR, et al. Raised inflammatory markers in semen from men with asymptomatic chlamydial infection. J Androl. 2010;31:114–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Rybar R, Prinosilova P, Kopecka V, et al. The effect of bacterial contamination of semen on sperm chromatin integrity and standard semen parameters in men from infertile couples. Andrologia. 2012;44:410–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Brookings C, Goldmeier D, Sadeghi-Nejad H. Sexually transmitted infections and sexual function in relation to male fertility. Korean J Urol. 2013;54:149–56.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  63. Jungwirth A, Straberger A, Esterbauer B, et al. Acrosome reaction in chlamydia-positive and negative patients. Andrologia. 2003;35:314–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Eley A, Pacey AA, Galdiero M, et al. Can Chlamydia trachomatis directly damage your sperm? Lancet Infect Dis. 2005;5:53–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Hosseinzadeh S, Brewis IA, Pacey AA, et al. Coincubation of human spermatozoa with Chlamydia trachomatis in vitro causes increased tyrosine phosphorylation of sperm proteins. Infect Immun. 2000;68:4872–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  66. Hosseinzadeh S, Brewis IA, Eley A, et al. Co-incubation of human spermatozoa with Chlamydia trachomatis serovar E causes premature sperm death. Hum Reprod. 2001;16:293–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Hosseinzadeh S, Pacey AA, Eley A. Chlamydia trachomatis-induced death of human spermatozoa is caused primarily by lipopolysaccharide. J Med Microbiol. 2003;52:193–200.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Harris CL, Vigar MA, Rey Nores JE, et al. The lipopolysaccharide co-receptor CD14 is present and functional in seminal plasma and expressed on spermatozoa. Immunology. 2001;104:317–23.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  69. Urata K, Narahara H, Tanaka Y, et al. Effect of endotoxin-induced reactive oxygen species on sperm motility. Fertil Steril. 2001;76:163–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Creighton S, Tenant-Flowers M, Taylor CB, et al. Co-infection with gonorrhoea and chlamydia: how much is there and what does it mean? Int J STD AIDS. 2003;14:109–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Witkin SS, Jeremias J, Grifo JA, et al. Detection of Chlamydia trachomatis in semen by the polymerase chain reaction in male members of infertile couples. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1993;168:1457–62.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Styler M, Shapiro SS. Mollicutes (mycoplasma) in infertility. Fertil Steril. 1985;44:1–12.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Kilic D, Basar MM, Kaygusuz S, et al. Prevalence and treatment of chlamydia trachomatis, Ureaplasma urealyticum, and mycoplasma hominis in patients with non-gonococcal urethritis. Jpn J Infect Dis. 2004;57(1):17–20.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Zeighami H, Peerayeh SN, Yazdi RS, Sorouri R. Prevalence of Ureaplasma urealyticum and Ureaplasma parvum in semen of infertile and healthy men. Int J STD AIDS. 2009;20:387–90.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Schiefer HG. Microbiology of male urethroadnexitis: diagnostic procedures and criteria for aetiologic classification. Andrologia. 1998;30(Suppl 1):7–13.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Gdoura R, Kchaou W, Chaari C, et al. Ureaplasma urealyticum, Ureaplasma parvum, Mycoplasma hominis and Mycoplasma genitalium infections and semen quality of infertile men. BMC Infect Dis. 2007;7:129.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  77. Abusarah EA, Awwad ZM, Charvalos E, Shehabi AA. Molecular detection of potential sexually transmitted pathogens in semen and urine specimens of infertile and fertile males. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2013;77:283–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Knox CL, Allan JA, Allan JM, et al. Ureaplasma parvum and Ureaplasma urealyticum are detected in semen after washing before assisted reproductive technology procedures. Fertil Steril. 2003;80:921–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Kjaergaard N, Kristensen B, Hansen ES, et al. Microbiology of semen specimens from males attending a fertility clinic. APMIS. 1997;105:566–70.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Potts JM, Sharma R, Pasqualotto F, et al. Association of Ureaplasma urealyticum with abnormal reactive oxygen species levels and absence of leukocytospermia. J Urol. 2000;163:1775–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Wang Y, Liang CL, Wu JQ, et al. Do Ureaplasma urealyticum infections in the genital tract affect semen quality? Asian J Androl. 2006;8:562–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Reichart M, Kahane I, Bartoov B. In vivo and in vitro impairment of human and ram sperm nuclear chromatin integrity by sexually transmitted Ureaplasma urealyticum infection. Biol Reprod. 2000;63:1041–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Reichart M, Levi H, Kahane I, et al. Dual energy metabolism-dependent effect of Ureaplasma urealyticum infection on sperm activity. J Androl. 2001;22:404–12.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Cottell E, Harrison RF, McCaffrey M, et al. Are seminal fluid microorganisms of significance or merely contaminants? Fertil Steril. 2000;74:465–70.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Deguchi T, Maeda S. Mycoplasma genitalium: another important pathogen of non-gonococcal urethritis. J Urol. 2002;167:210–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  86. Andrade-Rocha FT. Ureaplasma urealyticum and Mycoplasma hominis in men attending for routine semen analysis. Prevalence, incidence by age and clinical settings, influence on sperm characteristics, relationship with the leukocyte count and clinical value. Urol Int. 2003;71:377–81.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Al-Sweih NA, Al-Fadli AH, Omu AE, Rotimi VO. Prevalence of Chlamydia trachomatis, Mycoplasma hominis, Mycoplasma genitalium, and Ureaplasma urealyticum infections and seminal quality in infertile and fertile men in Kuwait. J Androl. 2012;33:1323–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Wikstrom A, Jensen JS. Mycoplasma genitalium: a common cause of persistent urethritis among men treated with doxycycline. Sex Transm Infect. 2006;82:276–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  89. Taylor-Robinson D. Mycoplasma genitalium – an update. Int J STD AIDS. 2002;13:145–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Diaz-Garcia FJ, Herrera-Mendoza AP, Giono-Cerezo S, et al. Mycoplasma hominis attaches to and locates intracellularly in human spermatozoa. Hum Reprod. 2006;21:1591–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Cohen CR, Manhart LE, Bukusi EA, et al. Association between Mycoplasma genitalium and acute endometritis. Lancet. 2002;359:765–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Köhn FM, Erdmann I, Oeda T, et al. Influence of urogenital infections on sperm functions. Andrologia. 1998;30(Suppl 1):73–80.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Krause W. Male accessory gland infection. Andrologia. 2008;40:113–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Harvey HA, Porat N, Campbell CA, et al. Gonococcal lipooligosaccharide is a ligand for the asialoglycoprotein receptor on human sperm. Mol Microbiol. 2000;36:1059–70.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Eley A, Hosseinzadeh S, Hakimi H, et al. Apoptosis of ejaculated human sperm is induced by co-incubation with Chlamydia trachomatis lipopolysaccharide. Hum Reprod. 2005;20:2601–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. AVERT.org. STD Statistics Worldwide. http://www.avert.org/stdstatisticsworldwide.htm. Accessed 8 Apr 2010.

  97. Imudia AN, Detti L, Puscheck EE, et al. The prevalence of ureaplasma urealyticum, mycoplasma hominis, chlamydia trachomatis and neisseria gonorrhoeae infections, and the rubella status of patients undergoing an initial infertility evaluation. J Assist Reprod Genet. 2008;25:43–6.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  98. Nagy V, Kubej D. Acute bacterial prostatitis in humans: current microbiological spectrum, sensitivity to antibiotics and clinical findings. Urol Int. 2012;89:445–50.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Shang Y, Liu C, Cui D, et al. The effect of chronic bacterial prostatitis on semen quality in adult men: a meta-analysis of case-control studies. Sci Rep. 2014;4:7233.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  100. Huwe P, Diemer T, Ludwig M, et al. Influence of different uropathogenic microorganisms on human sperm motility parameters in an in vitro experiment. Andrologia. 1998;30(Suppl 1):55–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Diemer T, Huwe P, Michelmann HW, et al. Escherichia coli-induced alterations of human spermatozoa. An electron microscopy analysis. Int J Androl. 2000;23:178–86.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Fraczek M, Piasecka M, Gaczarzewicz D, et al. Membrane stability and mitochondrial activity of human-ejaculated spermatozoa during in vitro experimental infection with Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus haemolyticus and Bacteroides ureolyticus. Andrologia. 2012;44:315–29.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Fraczek M, Szumala-Kakol A, Dworacki G, et al. In vitro reconstruction of inflammatory reaction in human semen: effect on sperm DNA fragmentation. J Reprod Immunol. 2013;100:76–85.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Zeyad A, Hamad M, Amor H, Hammadeh ME. Relationships between bacteriospermia, DNA integrity, nuclear protamine alteration, sperm quality and ICSI outcome. Reprod Biol. 2018;18:115–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Stammler A, Hau T, Bhushan S, et al. Epididymitis: ascending infection restricted by segmental boundaries. Hum Reprod. 2015;30:1557–65.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Michel V, Duan Y, Stoschek E, et al. Uropathogenic Escherichia coli causes fibrotic remodelling of the epididymis. J Pathol. 2016;240:15–24.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Sanchez R, Villagran E, Concha M, et al. Ultrastructural analysis of the attachment sites of Escherichia coli to the human spermatozoon after in vitro migration through estrogenic cervical mucus. Int J Fertil. 1989;34:363–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Diemer T, Huwe P, Ludwig M, et al. Influence of autogenous leucocytes and Escherichia coli on sperm motility parameters in vitro. Andrologia. 2003;35:100–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Schulz M, Sanchez R, Soto L, et al. Effect of Escherichia coli and its soluble factors on mitochondrial membrane potential, phosphatidylserine translocation, viability, and motility of human spermatozoa. Fertil Steril. 2010;94(2):619–23.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Diemer T, Ludwig M, Huwe P, et al. Influence of urogenital infection on sperm function. Curr Opin Urol. 2000;10:39–44.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Ching JC, Jones NL, Ceponis PJ, et al. Escherichia coli Shiga-like toxins induce apoptosis and cleavage of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase via in vitro activation of caspases. Infect Immun. 2002;70:4669–77.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  112. Kaur K, Prabha V. Spermagglutinating Escherichia coli and its role in infertility: in vivo study. Microb Pathog. 2014;69-70:33–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Dejucq N, Jegou B. Viruses in the mammalian male genital tract and their effects on the reproductive system. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev. 2001;65:208–31.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  114. Bezold G, Politch JA, Kiviat NB, et al. Prevalence of sexually transmissible pathogens in semen from asymptomatic male infertility patients with and without leukocytospermia. Fertil Steril. 2007;87:1087–97.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  115. Barzon L, Pacenti M, Franchin E, et al. Infection dynamics in a traveller with persistent shedding of Zika virus RNA in semen for six months after returning from Haiti to Italy, January 2016. Euro Surveill. 2016;21:30316.

    Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  116. Nicastri E, Castilletti C, Liuzzi G, et al. Persistent detection of Zika virus RNA in semen for six months after symptom onset in a traveller returning from Haiti to Italy, February 2016. Euro Surveill. 2016;21:30314.

    Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  117. Kapranos N, Petrakou E, Anastasiadou C, et al. Detection of herpes simplex virus, cytomegalovirus, and Epstein-Barr virus in the semen of men attending an infertility clinic. Fertil Steril. 2003;79(Suppl 3):1566–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Manigart Y, Rozenberg S, Barlow P, et al. ART outcome in HIV-infected patients. Hum Reprod. 2006;21:2935–40.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Bandivdekar AH, Velhal SM, Raghavan VP. Identification of CD4-independent HIV receptors on spermatozoa. Am J Reprod Immunol. 2003;50:322–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Muciaccia B, Padula F, Gandini L, et al. HIV-1 chemokine co-receptor CCR5 is expressed on the surface of human spermatozoa. AIDS. 2005;19:1424–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Muciaccia B, Corallini S, Vicini E, et al. HIV-1 viral DNA is present in ejaculated abnormal spermatozoa of seropositive subjects. Hum Reprod. 2007;22:2868–78.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. Le Tortorec A, Dejucq-Rainsford N. HIV infection of the male genital tract – consequences for sexual transmission and reproduction. Int J Androl. 2010;33:e98–e108.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  123. Pillai SK, Good B, Pond SK, et al. Semen-specific genetic characteristics of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 env. J Virol. 2005;79:1734–42.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  124. Oliveira DBL, Durigon GS, Mendes EA, et al. Persistence and intra-host genetic evolution of Zika virus infection in symptomatic adults: a special view in the male reproductive system. Viruses. 2018;10(11). pii: E615. https://doi.org/10.3390/v10110615.

  125. Musso D, Gubler DJ. Zika Virus. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2016;29:487–524.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  126. Swaminathan S, Schlaberg R, Lewis J, et al. Fatal Zika virus infection with secondary nonsexual transmission. N Engl J Med. 2016;375:1907–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  127. Govero J, Esakky P, Scheaffer SM, et al. Zika virus infection damages the testes in mice. Nature. 2016;540:438–42.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  128. Ma W, Li S, Ma S, et al. Zika virus causes testis damage and leads to male infertility in mice. Cell. 2016;167:1511–24.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Panchaud A, Stojanov M, Ammerdorffer A, et al. Emerging role of Zika virus in adverse fetal and neonatal outcomes. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2016;29:659–94.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  130. Cao-Lormeau VM, Blake A, Mons S, et al. Guillain-Barré syndrome outbreak associated with Zika virus infection in French Polynesia: a case-control study. Lancet. 2016;387:1531–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  131. Gornet ME, Bracero NJ, Segars JH. Zika virus in semen: what we know and what we need to know. Semin Reprod Med. 2016;34:285–92.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. Musso D, Roche C, Robin E, et al. Potential sexual transmission of Zika virus. Emerg Infect Dis. 2015;21:359–61.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  133. Besnard M, Lastere S, Teissier A, et al. Evidence of perinatal transmission of Zika virus, French Polynesia, December 2013 and February 2014. Euro Surveill. 2014;19:pii:20751. PMID: 24721538. https://doi.org/10.2807/1560-7917.ES2014.19.13.20751.

  134. Benjamin I, Fernandez G, Figueira JV, et al. Zika virus detected in amniotic fluid and umbilical cord blood in an in vitro fertilization-conceived pregnancy in Venezuela. Fertil Steril. 2017;107:1319–22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. Borges E Jr, Braga DPAF, Zanetti BF, et al. Zika virus outbreak – should assisted reproduction patients avoid pregnancy? JBRA Assist Reprod. 2017;21:208–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. Gimenes F, Souza RP, Bento JC, et al. Male infertility: a public health issue caused by sexually transmitted pathogens. Nat Rev Urol. 2014;11:672–87.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  137. Harp DF, Chowdhury I. Trichomoniasis: evaluation to execution. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2011;157:3–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  138. Ozdemir E, Kelestemur N, Kaplan M. Trichomonas vaginalis as a rare cause of male factor infertility at a hospital in East Anatolia. Andrologia. 2011;43:283–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  139. Hezarjaribi HZ, Fakhar M, Shokri A, et al. Trichomonas vaginalis infection among Iranian general population of women: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Parasitol Res. 2015;114(4):1291–300.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  140. Skerk V, Schönwald S, Krhen I, et al. Aetiology of chronic prostatitis. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2002;19:471–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  141. Skerk V, Krhen I, Schonwald S, et al. The role of unusual pathogens in prostatitis syndrome. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2004;24(Suppl 1):S53–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  142. Schwebke JR, Rompalo A, Taylor S, et al. Re-evaluating the treatment of nongonococcal urethritis: emphasizing emerging pathogens – a randomized clinical trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52:163–70.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  143. Mitteregger D, Aberle SW, Makristathis A, et al. High detection rate of Trichomonas vaginalis in benign hyperplastic prostatic tissue. Med Microbiol Immunol. 2012;201:113–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  144. Benchimol M, de Andrade Rosa I, da Silva Fontes R, Burla Dias AJ. Trichomonas adhere and phagocytose sperm cells: adhesion seems to be a prominent stage during interaction. Parasitol Res. 2008;102:597–604.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  145. Roh J, Lim YS, Seo MY, et al. The secretory products of Trichomonas vaginalis decrease fertilizing capacity of mice sperm in vitro. Asian J Androl. 2015;17:319–23.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  146. Kampmeier RH. The late manifestations of syphilis: skeletal, visceral and cardiovascular. Med Clin North Am. 1964;48:667–97.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  147. Cruz AR, Ramirez LG, Zuluaga AV, et al. Immune evasion and recognition of the syphilis spirochete in blood and skin of secondary syphilis patients: two immunologically distinct compartments. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2012;6:e1717.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  148. Sellati TJ, Bouis DA, Kitchens RL, et al. Treponema pallidum and Borrelia burgdorferi lipoproteins and synthetic lipopeptides activate monocytic cells via a CD14-dependent pathway distinct from that used by lipopolysaccharide. J Immunol. 1998;160:5455–64.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  149. Lien E, Sellati TJ, Yoshimura A, et al. Toll-like receptor 2 functions as a pattern recognition receptor for diverse bacterial products. J Biol Chem. 1999;274:33419–25.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  150. Brightbill HD, Libraty DH, Krutzik SR, et al. Host defense mechanisms triggered by microbial lipoproteins through toll-like receptors. Science. 1999;285(5428):732–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  151. Wooten RM, Ma Y, Yoder RA, et al. Toll-like receptor 2 is required for innate, but not acquired, host defense to Borrelia burgdorferi. J Immunol. 2002;168:348–55.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  152. Alexopoulou L, Thomas V, Schnare M, et al. Hyporesponsiveness to vaccination with Borrelia burgdorferi OspA in humans and in TLR1- and TLR2-deficient mice. NatureMedicine. 2002;8:878–84.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  153. Cheng L, Bostwick DG. editors. Essentials of anatomic pathology. New York, Dordrecht, Heidelberg, London: Springer; 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  154. Alkmim-Oliveira SM, Costa-Martins AG, Kappel HB, et al. Trypanosoma cruzi experimental congenital transmission associated with TcV and TcI subpatent maternal parasitemia. Parasitol Res. 2013;112:671–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  155. Shiadeh MN, Niyyati M, Fallahi S, Rostami A. Human parasitic protozoan infection to infertility: a systematic review. Parasitol Res. 2016;115:469–77.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  156. Morrison WI, Murray M, Sayer PD, Preston JM. The pathogenesis of experimentally induced Trypanosoma brucei infection in the dog. I. Tissue and organ damage. Am J Pathol. 1981;102:168–81.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  157. Hawking F, Greenfield JG. Two autopsies on rhodesiense sleeping sickness; visceral lesions and significance of changes in cerebrospinal fluid. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 1941;35:155.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  158. Noireau F, Apembet JD, Frezil JL. Revue clinique des troubles endocriniens observes chez I’adulte trypanosome. Bull Soc Pathol Exot. 1988;81:464.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  159. Lamano Carvalho TL, Ferreira AL, Sahao MA. Alteracoes do testIculo humano na molestia de Chagas. I-Avaliacao da cinetica da espermatogenese. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 1982;24:205.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  160. Lamano Carvalho TL, Ferreira AL, Sahao MA. Alteracoes do testIculo humano na molestia de Chagas. II-Estudo morfometrico do tecido intersticial. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 1982;24:214.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  161. Moreira AC, Antunes-Rodrigues J, Lima Filho EC, et al. Luteinizing hormone secretion in men with chronic Chagas’ disease. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 1982;24:148.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  162. Boersma A, Noireau F, Hublart M, et al. Gonadotropic axis and Trypanosoma brucei gambiense infection. Ann Soc Belg Med Trop. 1989;69:127.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  163. Mjihdi A, Lambot MA, Stewart IJ, et al. Acute Trypanosoma cruzi infection in mouse induces infertility or placental parasite invasion and ischemic necrosis associated with massive fetal loss. Am J Pathol. 2002;161:673–80.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  164. World Health Organization (WHO). Schistosomiasis, fact sheet; 2018. https://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/schistosomiasis. Accessed 1 Aug 2019.

  165. Chitsulo L, Loverde P, Schistosomiasis ED. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2004;2:12–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  166. Torresi J, Sheori H, Ryan N, Yung A. Usefulness of semen microscopy in the diagnosis of a difficult case of Schistosoma haematobium infection in a returned traveler. J Travel Med. 1997;4:46–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  167. Omer EEF. Inflammatory conditions and semen quality among subfertile Sudanese males. Trop Doc. 1985;15:27–8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  168. Joshi RA. Total granulomatous infarction of testis due to Schistosoma haematobium. J Clin Pathol. 1967;20:273–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  169. Abdel-Naser MB, Wollina U, Lohan M, et al. Schistosomiasis (Bilharziasis) ova: an incidental finding in testicular tissue of an obstructive azoospermic man. Andrologia. 2018;50(10):e13131. https://doi.org/10.1111/and.13131. Epub 2018 Aug 22.

  170. Diemer T, Desjardins C. Disorders of spermatogenesis. In: Knobil E, Neill JD, editors. Encyclopedia of reproduction, vol. 4. San Diego: Academic; 1999. p. 546–56.

    Google Scholar 

  171. Schuppe HC, Meinhardt A. Immunology of the testis and the excurrent ducts. In: Schill W-B, Comhaire F, Hargreave TB, editors. Andrology for the clinician. Heidelberg: Springer; 2006. p. 292–300.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  172. Schuppe HC, Meinhardt A. Immune privilege and inflammation of the testis. Chem Immunol Allergy. 2005;88:1–14.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  173. Haidl G, Allam JP, Schuppe HC. Chronic epididymitis: impact on semen parameters and therapeutic options. Andrologia. 2008;40:92–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  174. Mazumdar S, Levine AS. Antisperm antibodies: etiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment. Fertil Steril. 1998;70:799–810.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  175. Kalaydjiev S, Dimitrova D, Nenova M, et al. Serum sperm antibodies are not elevated after mumps orchitis. Fertil Steril. 2002;77:76–82.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  176. Nistal M, Paniagua R, editors. Testicular and epididymal pathology. Stuttgart/New York: Thieme; 1984.

    Google Scholar 

  177. Bartak V. Sperm count, morphology and motility after unilateral mumps orchitis. J Reprod Fertil. 1973;32:491–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  178. Casella R, Leibundgut B, Lehman K, et al. Mumps orchitis: report of a mini-epidemic. J Urol. 1997;158:2158–61.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  179. Behrman RE, Kliegman RM, Jenson HB, editors. Nelson textbook of pediatics. 17th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders; 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  180. Philip J, Selvan D, Desmond AD. Mumps orchitis in the non-immune postpubertal male: a resurgent threat to male fertility? BJU Int. 2006;97:138–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  181. Ludwig M. Diagnosis and therapy of acute prostatitis, epididymitis and orchitis. Andrologia. 2008;40:76–80.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  182. Kopa Z, Wenzel J, Papp GK, et al. Role of granulocyte elastase and interleukin-6 in the diagnosis of male genital tract inflammation. Andrologia. 2005;37:188–94.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  183. Collins MM, Stafford RS, O’Leary MP, et al. How common is prostatitis? A national survey of physician visits. J Urol. 1998;159:1224–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  184. Vordermark JS. Acute epididymitis: experience with 123 cases. Mil Med. 1985;150:27–30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  185. Chan PT, Schlegel PN. Inflammatory conditions of the male excurrent ductal system. Part II. J Androl. 2002;23:461–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  186. Trojian TH, Lishnak TS, Heiman D. Epididymitis and orchitis: an overview. Am Fam Physician. 2009;79:583–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  187. Comhaire F, Mahmoud A. Infection/inflammation of the accessory sex glands. In: Schill W-B, Comhaire F, Hargreave TB, editors. Andrology for the clinician. Heidelberg: Springer; 2006. p. 72–4.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  188. World Health Organization. WHO laboratory manual for the examination of human semen and semen-cervical mucus interaction. 4th ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University; 1999.

    Google Scholar 

  189. National Kidney and Urologic Disease Advisory Board. Long-Range Plan Window on the 21st Century. United states department of health and human services. National Institutes of Health publication. 1990;90-583:20.

    Google Scholar 

  190. Roberts RO, Lieber MM, Bostwick DG, et al. A review of clinical and pathological prostatitis syndromes. Urology. 1997;49:809–21.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  191. Nickel JC, Downey J, Hunter D, et al. Prevalence of prostatitis-like symptoms in a population based study using the National Institutes of Health chronic prostatitis symptom index. J Urol. 2001;165:842–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  192. Brunner H, Weidner W, Schiefer H-G. Studies on the role of Ureaplasma urealyticum and Mycoplasma hominis in prostatitis. J Infect Dis. 1983;147:807–13.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  193. Bjerklund Johansen TE, Grüneberg RN, Guibert J, et al. The role of antibiotics in the treatment of chronic prostatitis: a consensus statement. Eur Urol. 1998;34:457–66.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  194. Nickel JC, Downey J, Johnston B, et al. Predictors of patient response to antibiotic therapy for the chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome: a prospective multicenter clinical trial. J Urol. 2001;165:1539–44.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  195. Drach GW, Fair WR, Meares EM, et al. Classification of benign diseases associated with prostatic pain: prostatitis or prostatodynia? J Urol. 1978;120:266.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  196. Nickel JC. Prostatitis: myths and realities. Urology. 1998;51:362–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  197. Krieger JN, Nyberg LJ, Nickel JC. NIH consensus definition and classification of prostatitis. JAMA. 1999;282:236–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  198. Roberts RO, Lieber MM, Rhodes T, et al. Prevalence of a physician-assigned diagnosis of prostatitis: the Olmsted County study of urinary symptoms and health status among men. Urology. 1998;51:578–84.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  199. Nickel JC. Prostatitis: the last frontier. World J Surg. 2000;24:1197–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  200. Nickel JC. Classification and diagnosis of prostatitis: a gold standard? Andrologia. 2003;35:160–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  201. Lopez-Plaza I, Bostwick DG. Prostatitis. In: Bostwick DG, editor. Pathology of the prostate. New York: Churchill Livingstone; 1990. p. 15–30.

    Google Scholar 

  202. Skerk V, Cajic V, Markovinovic L, et al. Etiology of chronic prostatitis syndrome in patients treated at the university hospital for infectious diseases “Dr. Fran Mihaljević” from 2003 to 2005. Coll Antropol. 2006;30(Suppl 2):145–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  203. Nickel JC, Moon T. Chronic bacterial prostatitis: an evolving clinical enigma. Urology. 2005;66:2–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  204. Nickel JC, Costerton JW, McLean RJC, et al. Bacterial biofilms: influence on the pathogenesis, diagnosis and treatment of urinary tract infections. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1994;33(Suppl A):31–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  205. Ochsendorf F. Urethritis, Sexually transmitted diseases (STD), acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). In: Schill W-B, Comhaire F, Hargreave TB, editors. Andrology for the clinician. Heidelberg: Springer; 2006. p. 327–38.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  206. Krieger JN, Hooton TM, Brust PJ, et al. Evaluation of chronic urethritis. Defining the role for endoscopic procedures. Arch Intern Med. 1988;148:703–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  207. Chambers RM. The mechanism of infection in the urethra, prostate and epididymis. In: Keith LG, Berger GS, Edelmann DA, editors. Infections in reproductive health. Common infections. Lancaster: MTP; 1985. p. 283–96.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  208. Sanocka D, Fraczek M, Jedrzejczak P, et al. Male genital tract infection: an influence of leukocytes and bacteria on semen. J Reprod Immunol. 2004;62:111–24.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  209. Henkel R, Kierspel E, Stalf T, et al. Effect of reactive oxygen species produced by spermatozoa and leukocytes on sperm functions in non-leukocytospermic patients. Fertil Steril. 2005;83:635–42.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  210. Schiefer HG, von Graevenitz A. Clinical microbiology. In: Schill W-B, Comhaire F, Hargreave TB, editors. Andrology for the clinician. Heidelberg: Springer; 2006. p. 401–7.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  211. Depuydt CE, Bosmans E, Zalata A, et al. The relation between reactive oxygen species and cytokines in andrological patients with or without male accessory gland infection. J Androl. 1996;17:699–707.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  212. Kocak I, Yenisey C, Dündar M, et al. Relationship between seminal plasma interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor alpha levels with semen parameters in fertile and infertile men. Urol Res. 2002;30:263–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  213. Aitken RJ, Gordon E, Harkiss D, et al. Relative impact of oxidative stress on the functional competence and genomic integrity of human spermatozoa. Biol Reprod. 1998;59:1037–46.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  214. Fraczek M, Sanocka D, Kamieniczna M, et al. Proinflammatory cytokines as an intermediate factor enhancing lipid sperm membrane peroxidation in in vitro conditions. J Androl. 2008;29:85–92.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  215. Cooper TG, Weidner W, Nieschlag E. The influence of inflammation of the human male genital tract on secretion of the seminal markers alpha-glucosidase, glycerophosphocholine, carnitine, fructose and citric acid. Int J Androl. 1990;13:329–36.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  216. Wolff H, Bezold G, Zebhauser M, et al. Impact of clinically silent inflammation on male genital tract organs as reflected by biochemical markers in semen. J Androl. 1991;12:331–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  217. Munoz MG, Jeremias J, Witkin SS. The 60 kDa heat shock protein in human semen: relationship with antibodies to spermatozoa and Chlamydia trachomatis. Hum Reprod. 1986;11:2600–1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  218. Bohring C, Krause E, Habermann B, et al. Isolation and identification of spermatozoa membrane antigens, recognized by antisperm antibodies and their possible role in immunological infertility disease. Mol Hum Reprod. 2001;7:113–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  219. Zalata AA, Christophe AB, Depuydt CE, et al. The fatty acid composition of phospholipids of spermatozoa from infertile patients. Mol Hum Reprod. 1998;4:111–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  220. Plante M, de Lamirande E, Gagnon C. Reactive oxygen species released by activated neutrophils, but not by deficient spermatozoa, are sufficient to affect normal sperm motility. Fertil Steril. 1994;62:387–93.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  221. Comhaire FH, Mahmoud AM, Depuydt CE, et al. Mechanisms and effects of male genital tract infection on sperm quality and fertilizing potential: the andrologist’s viewpoint. Hum Reprod Update. 1999;5:393–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  222. Aitken RJ, Clarkson JS, Fishel S. Generation of reactive oxygen species, lipid peroxidation, and human sperm function. Biol Reprod. 1989;41:183–97.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  223. Henkel R, Hajimohammad M, Stalf T, et al. Influence of deoxyribonucleic acid damage on fertilization and pregnancy. Fertil Steril. 2004;81:965–72.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  224. Motrich RD, Maccioni M, Molina R, et al. Reduced semen quality in chronic prostatitis patients that have cellular autoimmune response to prostate antigens. Hum Reprod. 2005;20:2567–72.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  225. Martinez R, Proverbio F, Camejo MI. Sperm lipid peroxidation and pro-inflammatory cytokines. Asian J Androl. 2007;9:102–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  226. Mortimer D. Sperm preparation techniques and iatrogenic failures of in-vitro fertilization. Hum Reprod. 1991;6:173–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  227. Alvarez JG, Sharma RK, Ollero M, et al. Increased DNA damage in sperm from leukocytospermic semen samples as determined by the sperm chromatin structure assay. Fertil Steril. 2002;78:319–29.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  228. Henkel R, Maaß G, Hajimohammad M, et al. Urogenital inflammation: changes of leucocytes and ROS. Andrologia. 2003;35:309–13.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  229. Henkel R, Ludwig M, Schuppe HC, et al. Chronic pelvic pain syndrome/chronic prostatitis affect the acrosome reaction in human spermatozoa. World J Urol. 2006;24:39–44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  230. Zalata AA, Ahmed AH, Allamaneni SSR, et al. Relationship between acrosin activity of human spermatozoa and oxidative stress. Asian J Androl. 2004;6:313–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  231. Centres for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2006;55:35–62.

    Google Scholar 

  232. Yeniyol CO, Sorguc S, Minareci S, et al. Role of interferon-alpha-2B in prevention of testicular atrophy with unilateral mumps orchitis. Urology. 2000;55:931–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  233. Naber KG, Madsen PO. Antibiotics: basic concepts. In: Nickel JC, editor. Textbook of prostatitis. Cambridge, UK: Isis Medical Media; 1999. p. 83–94.

    Google Scholar 

  234. Naber KG, Weidner W. Chronic prostatitis – an infectious disease? J Antimicrob Chemother. 2000;46:157–61.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  235. Solomon MC, Henkel R. Semen culture and the assessment of genitourinary tract infections. Ind J Urol. 2017;33:188–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  236. Hendry WF, Stedronska J, Hughes L, et al. Steroid treatment of male subfertility caused by antisperm antibodies. Lancet. 1979;2:498–501.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  237. Montag M, van der Ven H, Haidl G. Recovery of ejaculated spermatozoa for intracytoplasmic sperm injection after anti-inflammatory treatment of an azoospermic patient with genital tract infection: a case report. Andrologia. 1999;31(3):179–81.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  238. Haidl G. Management strategies for male factor infertility. Drugs. 2002;62:1741–53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  239. Tremellen K. Oxidative stress and male infertility – a clinical perspective. Hum Reprod Update. 2008;14:243–58.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  240. Lanzafame FM, La Vignera S, Vicari E, et al. Oxidative stress and medical antioxidant treatment in male infertility. Reprod Biomed Online. 2009;19:638–59.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  241. Comhaire FH, Christophe AB, Zalata AA, et al. The effects of combined conventional treatment, oral antioxidants and essential fatty acids on sperm biology in subfertile men. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2000;63:159–65.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  242. Comhaire FH, El Garem Y, Mahmoud A, et al. Combined conventional/antioxidant “Astaxanthin” treatment for male infertility: a double blind, randomized trial. Asian J Androl. 2005;7:257–62.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  243. Vicari E, Calogero AE. Effects of treatment with carnitines in infertile patients with prostato-vesiculo-epididymitis. Hum Reprod. 2001;16:2338–42.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  244. Lenzi A, Sgro P, Salacone P, et al. A placebo-controlled double-blind randomized trial of the use of combined l-carnitine and l-acetyl-carnitine treatment in men with asthenozoospermia. Fertil Steril. 2004;81:1578–84.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  245. Balercia G, Regoli F, Armeni T, et al. Placebo-controlled double-blind randomized trial on the use of l-carnitine, l-acetylcarnitine, or combined l-carnitine and l-acetylcarnitine in men with idiopathic asthenozoospermia. Fertil Steril. 2005;84:662–71.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  246. Akmal M, Qadri JQ, Al-Waili NS, et al. Improvement in human semen quality after oral supplementation of vitamin C. J Med Food. 2006;9:440–2.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  247. Greco E, Iacobelli M, Rienzi L, et al. Reduction of the incidence of sperm DNA fragmentation by oral antioxidant treatment. J Androl. 2005;26:349–53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  248. Menezo YJ, Hazout A, Panteix G, et al. Antioxidants to reduce sperm DNA fragmentation: an unexpected adverse effect. Reprod Biomed Online. 2007;14:418–21.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. American Center for Reproductive Medicine, Department of Urology, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, USA

    Ralf Henkel

  2. Department of Medical Biosciences, University of the Western Cape, Bellville, South Africa

    Ralf Henkel

Authors
  1. Ralf Henkel
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ralf Henkel .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. PUR Clinic, University of Central Florida (UCF), Clermont, FL, USA

    Sijo J. Parekattil

  2. ANDROFERT and State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, Brazil

    Sandro C. Esteves

  3. Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine, Cleveland, OH, USA

    Ashok Agarwal

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Henkel, R. (2020). Infection in Infertility. In: Parekattil, S., Esteves, S., Agarwal, A. (eds) Male Infertility. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-32300-4_32

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-32300-4_32

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-32299-1

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-32300-4

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation