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Domestication of the Donkey (Equus asinus) in the Southern Levant: Archaeozoology, Iconography and Economy

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Animals and Human Society in Asia

Part of the book series: The Palgrave Macmillan Animal Ethics Series ((PMAES))

Abstract

This chapter discusses the timing of the first domestication of donkeys (Equus asinus) in the southern Levant (southern Syria-Israel Palestine-/Jordan) with reference to the region’s archaeozoological record. It further examines their subsequent utilization in local exchange systems based on iconographic records (miniature, artistic-cultic representations) found in archaeological sites. More specifically, this chapter reviews data concerning the role of these beasts of burden and the possible existence of a dedicated social stratum or group of persons specializing in their use in the Early Bronze Age (ca. 3700/3600–2400 BC). These data are bolstered by additional ancient Near Eastern sources and by ethnographic examples from the New World thought to possibly represent analogous situations.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Jiménez (1914), Stevenson (1879 [2016]); for a review see Shavit and Reinharz (2014).

  2. 2.

    Sherratt (1980).

  3. 3.

    Outram et al. (2009) and Uerpmann and Uerpmann (2012a).

  4. 4.

    Kugler et al. (2008).

  5. 5.

    Eisenmann (1986), Eisenmann and Beckouche (1986), Uerpmann (1986), Clutton-Brock (1992), Rossel et al. (2008), Weber (2008), and Bennett et al. (2017).

  6. 6.

    Rossel et al. (2008) and Shackelford et al. (2013).

  7. 7.

    Beja-Pereira et al. (2004), Vilà et al. (2006), and Jónsson et al. (2014).

  8. 8.

    Kimura et al. (2011, 2013).‏

  9. 9.

    Kefena et al. (2012).‏

  10. 10.

    Rosenbom et al. (2015).

  11. 11.

    Pérez‐Pardal et al. (2014).

  12. 12.

    Cf. Zeuner (1963).

  13. 13.

    Vilà et al. (2006) and Bennett et al. (2017).

  14. 14.

    Gilbert et al. (1990, 46), Clutton-Brock (1992), Hesse, and Wapnish (2002, 471), and Croft (2004, 2284).

  15. 15.

    Marshall (2000) and Marshall (2007, Table 20.2).

  16. 16.

    Marshall (2007, Table 20.2), Rossel et al. (2008), and Uerpmann and Uerpmann (2012a).

  17. 17.

    E.g. Epstein (1971), Clutton-Brock (1992), and more recently Rossel et al. (2008).

  18. 18.

    Marshall (2007) and Kimura et al. (2013).

  19. 19.

    Potts (2011, Fig. 1).

  20. 20.

    Rosenbom et al. (2015).

  21. 21.

    Kimura et al. (2011, 2013).

  22. 22.

    Ducos (1975), Vila (2006), and Horwitz et al. (2011).

  23. 23.

    Uerpmann (1991) and Potts (2011).

  24. 24.

    Uerpmann (1986, Table 20.2) and Marshall (2007).

  25. 25.

    Rosenbom et al. (2015).

  26. 26.

    Ducos (1968) and Grigson (1987, 2006).

  27. 27.

    Whitcher (1999); Whitcher Kansa (2004).

  28. 28.

    E.g. Horwitz and Tchernov (1989) and Milevski (2009).

  29. 29.

    E.g. Grigson (2012).

  30. 30.

    Some chronological attributions such as those relating to the site of Maadi made by Grigson (2012, 188) are not correct; this site is not contemporaneous with the Chalcolithic but with the EBA IA, as shown by the presence of pottery and flint artifacts dated to the later period (Rizkana and Seeher 1987).

  31. 31.

    Véra Eisenmann website “Shiqmim, deuxième phalange postérieure (posterior Ph2).” (published July 18, 2012 accessed January 31, 2017) http://www.vera-eisenmann.com/shiqmim-deuxieme-phalange-posterieure-posterior-ph2.

  32. 32.

    Horwitz et al. (2011).

  33. 33.

    Grigson (2012).

  34. 34.

    Motro (2014).

  35. 35.

    Grigson (2012).

  36. 36.

    Véra Eisenmann, “Data on Equids from Munhatta, Hagoshrim, Tel Gat, Tel Turmus, Lod, Arad.” http://www.vera-eisenmann.com/-Moyen-Orient-Middle-East (published July 18, 2012 accessed January 31, 2017); Horwitz et al. (2011).

  37. 37.

    Grigson (2012, Fig. 5, 193).

  38. 38.

    Motro (2014).

  39. 39.

    E.g. Meadow (1989).

  40. 40.

    E.g. Davis (1980), Martin (1994), and Horwitz et al. (2011).

  41. 41.

    Starkey (2000) and Kugler et al. (2008).

  42. 42.

    Postgate (1986) and Jans and Bretschneider (1998).

  43. 43.

    Cf. Clutton-Brock (1992, 80) and Grigson (1995).

  44. 44.

    Cf. Partridge (1996, 95–99).

  45. 45.

    Al-Ajlouny et al. (2012).

  46. 46.

    Ibrahim and Mittman (1987, 5).

  47. 47.

    Braun (2013, Fig. 31d) and Engberg and Shipton (1934, 20, Fig. 10.L).

  48. 48.

    Braun (1985, 63; 2013, 117).

  49. 49.

    Milevski (2005, 2011).

  50. 50.

    Zaccagnini (1976).

  51. 51.

    Idem.; Weber (2008) and references therein.

  52. 52.

    Partridge (1996) and Nigro (2014).

  53. 53.

    Cf. Zaccagnini (1976, 557).

  54. 54.

    Heltzer (1978, 22).

  55. 55.

    Larsen (1967, 151).

  56. 56.

    Old Testament, 2 Kings 6:25; Foster (2002, 291).

  57. 57.

    Rathje (1972, 371).

  58. 58.

    Larsen (1967).

  59. 59.

    Pearson et al. (1999).

  60. 60.

    Goe (1983).

  61. 61.

    Nigro (2014).

  62. 62.

    Wapnish and Hesse (1991, 28–29).

  63. 63.

    Horwitz (2001, 188).

  64. 64.

    Larsen (1967).

  65. 65.

    E.g. Hester and Heizer (1981).

  66. 66.

    Sayej (1997, 89–91), de Miroschedji et al. (2001, 97), Yannai and Marder (2001), Horwitz et al. (2002), Whitcher (1999), Whitcher Kansa (2004), Greenfield et al. (2012), and Sapir-Hen et al. (2017).

  67. 67.

    Anbar (1998); for Biblical parallels, see Borowski (2002, 417), Way (2011), Scurlock 2002, 392).

  68. 68.

    Milevski (2011, 193–194) and Way (2011).

  69. 69.

    E.g. Clutton-Brock (1986, 1989) and Clutton-Brock and Davies (1993).

  70. 70.

    E.g. Petrie (1914) and Clutton-Brock (1992).

  71. 71.

    Oates and Oates (1993).

  72. 72.

    Kramer (1961).

  73. 73.

    Oates and Oates (1993) and Oates et al. (2001).

  74. 74.

    Milevski (2011).

  75. 75.

    Horwitz et al. (2017).

  76. 76.

    Way (2011).

  77. 77.

    E.g. Greenfield et al. (2012, 2015).

  78. 78.

    Grigson (1993, 2012), Horwitz et al. (2017).

  79. 79.

    Horwitz et al. (2017).

  80. 80.

    Serjeantson (2000).

  81. 81.

    Podberscek (2009).

  82. 82.

    Flannery et al. (1989).

  83. 83.

    Flores Ochoa (1997).

  84. 84.

    Reinhard and Ceruti (2000).

  85. 85.

    Nielsen (1997–1998).

  86. 86.

    Instituto Nacional de Cultura, Cusco, Peru, www.inc-cusco.gob.pe.

  87. 87.

    E.g. Amiran (1972a, b).

  88. 88.

    See Milevski (2011, 195–196), and bibliography therein.

  89. 89.

    Yekutieli (2004).

  90. 90.

    Joannès (1996, 331).

  91. 91.

    E.g. Foster (2002, 285–286).

  92. 92.

    Joannès (1996, 332).

  93. 93.

    Mendelsohn (1940).

  94. 94.

    Chaker (2016, 33).

  95. 95.

    Amiran (1985).

  96. 96.

    Ibid.

  97. 97.

    Greenberg (1996) and Greenberg and Porat (1996).

  98. 98.

    E.g. Gardiner and Peet (1952, Pls. XXXVII, XXXIX, LXXXV) and Staubli (1991, 100–107).

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Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Israel Antiquities Authority, Jerusalem, Israel

    Ianir Milevski

  2. The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel

    Liora Kolska Horwitz

Authors
  1. Ianir Milevski
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  2. Liora Kolska Horwitz
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Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Asian Studies, The University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel

    Rotem Kowner

  2. Zinman Institute of Archaeology, The University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel

    Guy Bar-Oz

  3. Institute of Asian and African Studies, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel

    Michal Biran

  4. Department of East Asian Studies, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel

    Meir Shahar

  5. Department of Asian Studies, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel

    Gideon Shelach-Lavi

Appendix

Appendix

Database of selected Equid remains from the southern Levant—Pre-Pottery Neolithic (PPN), Pottery Neolithic (PN), Early and Late Chalcolithic (ECh, LCH) and Early Bronze Age (EBA) periods, listed in chronological and geographical order.

Sites

MNI

(%)

Description

Period

References

Jericho

0.19

Equid

PPNA

Clutton-Brock (1979)

Faynan 16/328

1.0

Equid

PPNA

Twiss (2007)

Hatoula

1.0

Part of a 1st phalanx- Cf. E. hydruntinus/ E. asinus/ E. hemionus

PPNA

Davis et al. (1994)

Ayn Abu Nukhayla

0.1

One distal metapodial and four teeth- E. asinus/E. hemionus; 1 tooth may be E. caballus

PPNA

Dean (2014)

Aswad

1.0

Equid

PPNB

Stordeur et al. (2010)

Dhuwejla 1

1.0

Equid

PPNB

Martin (1994)

Munhata

0.3

E. hemionus onager

PPNB

Ducos (1968) and Eisenmann (2012b)

Jericho

0.6

Equus spp.

PPNB

Clutton-Brock (1979)

Abu Ghosh (old collections)

1.0

Two phalanges - donkey

PPNB

Davis (1978)

Abu Ghosh (Ducos sample)

2.0

Two bones and one metatarsal –

Equus sp.

PPNB

Ducos and Horwitz (2003, 109)

Ujret el Mehed

<1.0

 

PPNB

Dayan et al. (1986).

Wadi Tbeik

2.0

 

PPNB

Tchernov and Bar-Yosef (1982)

Beisamoun

3.0

E. hemionus -2 phalanges

MPPNB

Davis (1978)

‘Ain Ghazal -MPPNB

0.1

Equus sp.

MPPNB

Köhler-Rollefson et al. (1993, Table 1)

‘Ain Ghazal -LPPNB

1.5

Equus sp.

LPPNB

Köhler-Rollefson et al. (1993, Table 1)

Basta

4.0

Wild ass (E. africanus) and onager (E. hemionus)

LPPNB

Becker (1991)

Tel Tifdan

0.2

Equid

LPPNB

Twiss (2007)

Baja

1.4

Wild ass (E. africanus) and onager (E. hemionus)

LPPNB

von den Driesch et al. (2004)

Aim Jammam

1

E. hemionus or E. africanus

LPPNB

Makarewicz (2009)

Wadi Shueib

1.5

Equus

LPPNB

Makarewicz (2016)

‘Ain Ghazal -PPNC

3.0

Equus sp.

PPNC

Köhler-Rollefson et al. (1993, Table 1)

‘Ain Ghazal-PN

6.0

Equus sp.

PN

Köhler-Rollefson et al. (1993, Table 1)

Wadi Shueib

0.6

Equus

PPNC

Makarewicz (2016)

Burqu 27/2

8.6

Equid

PPNC/ELN

Martin (1994)

Burqu 27/ 1

 

Four bones of Equid

PPNC/ELN

Martin (1994)

Dhuweila 2

0.7

Equid

PPNC/ELN

Martin (1994)

Wadi Jilat 13/ 3

0.1

Equid

PPNC/ELN

Martin (1994)

Wadi Jilat 13/ 2

0.1

Equid

PPNC/ELN

Martin (1994)

Wadi Jilat 13/ 1

0.1

Equid

PPNC/ELN

Martin (1994)

Hagosherim -B1

n/a

Eisenmann-all may be referred to donkey

PN

Eisenmann (2012b)

Jericho -PN

1.0

Ass

PN

Clutton-Brock (1979)

Lod – Neve Yaraq

 

Equus sp.

PN - Mamluk

Sade (2016)

Nahal Zehora II

>0.5

One bone of equid -, stated as not easy to identify

PN

Davis (2012)

Nahal Zehora II

>0.5

One bone of equid,- stated as not easy to identify

PN

Davis (2012)

Nahal Qanah

1.3

Remains identified as probably mule

(intrusive due to hyaena activity)

PN or LCh

Horwitz (1996, 184, Table 9.1)

Wadi Shueib

0.6

Equus

PN

Makarewicz (2016)

Ramat Saharonim

n/a

Lower forelimb (metacarpal) of an equid, large wild ass (E. africanus) or small wild horse (E. caballus)

Late PN (Timnian)

Horwitz et al. (2011)

Wadi Judayid

 

E. hemionus (NISP = 18)

Late PN

(Timnian)

Henry et al. (1985)

Burqu 27/2

n/a

Two equid bones

LN/LCh

Martin (1994)

Tel Dan

n/a

One badly preserved upper molar identified as E. asinus or hemionus, on the base of the small size, enamel pattern study was not possible due to poor preservation

Mixed PN/ to EBA

Horwitz (1987)

Hagosherim -A1

 

Eisenmann-all may be referred to donkey

ECh

Eisenmann (2012b)

Nahal Zehora I

1.0

One bone of equid, - stated as not easy to identify to species

ECh

Davis (2012)

Tel Tzaf

0.8

E. asinus one bone

ECh

Hellwing (1988–1989)

Al-Basatin

0.6

Wild ass/onager

ECh

Kadowaki et al. (2008)

Qatif Y2

 

Equid

ECh

Grigson (1993)

Munhata

0.3

Equid remains

LCh?

Ducos (1968), Whitcher Kansa (2004, Table 1)

Tel Ali

n/a

Equid remains

LC?

Jarman (1974)

Tel Turmus

 

Two teeth- Cf. E. hemionus onager

LCh

LK Horwitz pers. observ.

Fazael 7

4.5

Two mandibular teeth, 1 maxilar tooth

LCh

Bar (2014, 342–344)

Shoham

31.8 donkey

0.4 wild

Two size classes – 3 large bones identified as E. africanus,

227 bones identified as E. asinus

LCh

Horwitz (2007)

Gat Guvrin

3.8

Equid metacarpal

LCh

Ducos (1968) and Whitcher Kansa (2004, Table 1)

Tel Halif (Lahav)

n/a

Equid remains

LCh

Levy et al. (1997, 24–25), Whitcher (1999)

Nahal Habesor, Site D

1.6

Equid remains

LCh

Ducos (1968), Alon (1977), and Horwitz et al. (2002, 110–111, Figs. 2–3)

Gilat

0.1

Two bones of donkeys

LCh

Grigson (2006)

Gilat

0.2

10 bones of equids

LCh

Grigson (2006)

Grar

n/a

Two metarcarpal of equids

LCh

Grigson (1995)

Grar

?

Metacarpal, radius and tibia from horses?

LCh

Grigson (1995)

Shiqmim

0.1

Two equid bones in stratum I (top soil)

LCh

Grigson (1987) and Whitcher et al. (1998)

Shiqmim

?

Noted as horse bones

LCh

Grigson (1993)

Shiqmim

?

Equid radius (?horse)

LCh

Grigson (1993)

Shiqmim

?

Equid phalanx 2 (?horse)

LCh

Grigson (1993)

Abu Matar

3.0

Equid remains

LCh

Josien (1955)

Abu Matar

3.0

Phalanx proximal of a donkey?

LCh

Josien (1955), Grigson (1993), and Whitcher Kansa (2004, Table 1)

Horvat Betar

0.5

One third phalanx, uncertain whether is a horse or domesticated equid

LCh

Angress (1959)

Horvat Betar

0.5

Equus phalanx tertia of hind limb, fairly small animal

LCh

Angress (1959, 70)

Metzer

0.5

Equid remains

LCh/ EBA IA

Ducos (1968) and Whitcher Kansa (2004, Table 1)

Tell Hujayrat al-Ghuzlan

3.8

478 bones of equids

LCh/EBA IA

Benecke (2009)

Shoham

6.0

Donkey

EBA I

Horwitz (2007)

Yiftahel

1.0

Donkey bones in fills of oval houses

EBA IA

Horwitz (1997)

Sheikh Diab 2

6.0

Three postcranial elements(scapula glenoid-fossa, proximal metacarpus and proximal metacarpus) uncertain whether E. asinus or E. hemionus

EBA IA

Bar (2014, 342–403)

Azor

8.0

Remains of donkeys from strata I and II

EBA IA

Horwitz (1999, Tables 8, 10)

Tel Halif (Lahav)

1.2

Donkey remains

EBA IA

Levy et al. (1997, 24–5) and Whitcher (1999)

Tel Halif (Lahav)

7.6

Hemione remains

EBA IA

Levy et al. (1997, 24–25) and Whitcher (1999)

Halif Terrace

11.3

Equid

EBA IA

Whitcher (1999) and Kansa et al. (2005)

Nahal Habesor, Site H

25

An almost complete donkey buried in a pit

EBA IA

Horwitz et al. (2002, 110-111, Figs. 2–3)

Nizzanim

21.1

Equid remains (horse/donkey?)

EBA IA

Yekutieli and Gophna (1994, Table 2)

Ashkelon Afridar

20.9

Highest rates of equid remains (n = 110) most probably donkeys at the very beginning of EBA IA

EBA IA

Whitcher Kansa (2004)

Ashkelon Afridar

14.9

High numbers of equid remains (n = 44) most probably donkeys

EBA IA

Whitcher Kansa (2004)

Ashkelon Afridar

1.7

Equid remains (n = 55) most probably donkeys

EBA IA

Whitcher Kansa (2004)

Ashkelon Afridar

6.8

29 bones of E. asinus including teeth

EBA IA

Sade (2008)

Ashkelon Afridar

6.8

Four bones identified as E. caballus including teeth

EBA IA

Sade (2008)

Ashkelon Barmea

6.7

Equid remains (Equussp.), 8 bones 27.9%

EBA IA

Zidane (2010)

Ashkelon Barnea

3.3

Donkey remains, 4 bones

EBA IA

Zidane (2010)

Ashkelon Hatayasim Street

?

Donkey

EBA IA

Motro (2014)

Taur Ikhbene

8.0

Bones of E. asinus

EBA IA

Horwitz et al. (2002, 116, Table 5)

Ashkelon Barmea

6.6

Donkey remains, 27 bones

EBA IA-B

Zidane (2010)

Ashkelon Barmea

10.4

Equid remains (E. caballus,mules, and Equus sp.), 42 bones

EBA IA-B

Zidane (2010)

Bet Haemeq

4.0

Bones found in Stratum III. No remains of equids were found in the Chalcolithic stratum VI, nor in the other EBA IA and EBA II–III strata (V, IV, II and I).

EBA IB

Meyerhof and Sade (1993)

Qiryat Ata

0.5

Few equid bones cf. donkey

EBA IB

Horwitz (2003a, 229–230, Table 8.2) (areas A-G)

Megiddo

0.04

Four bones from a donkey

EBA IB

Wapnish and Hesse 2000, 432, Table 14.1)

En Zippori

?

Several equid teeth probably from a mandible in a pit?

EBA IB

Milevski and Getzov (2014); pers. observ. I.M.

En Shadud

4.1

Four bones within the fill of the stratum, donkey or hemiones

EBA IB

Horwitz (1985)

Tel Aphek

2.2

Ten bones identified as E. asinus

EBA IB

Hellwing (2000, 304, Tables 15.2, 15.16)

Tel Dalit

0.5

Remains of donkeys

EBA IB

Horwitz et al. (1996)

Horvat Illit Tahtit

1.2

21 bones of equids (E. asinus or hemionus), cranial and limbs

EBA IB

Allentuck (2013, 107, Table 13)

Gezer

8.0

Left tibia, astragulus and calcaneum of hemione

EBA IB

Legge (1988,144–145)

Ashkelon Barmea

2.4

Donkey remains, 1 bone

EBA IB

Zidane (2010)

Ashkelon Barmea

7.6

Equid remains (E.caballus?, mules), 4 bones

EBA IB

Zidane (2010)

En Besor

9.5

Few bones of a donkey

EBA IB

Horwitz et al. (2002, 119, Table 2)

Taur Ikhbene

7.5

Bones of E. asinus

EBA IB

Horwitz et al. (2002, 116, Table 5)

Arad

0.8

Remains of probable donkeys in different frequencies; Eisenmann ids larger bones of Arad as belonging to an Ass, while the smaller resemble E. hydruntinus

EBA IB

Lernau (1978) and Davis (1976)

Tel Halif (Lahav)

11.0

Equids probably donkeys

EBA IB

Seger et al. (1990) and Whitcher (1999)

Tel Halif (Lahav)

2.1

Donkey remains

EBA IB

Levy et al. (1997, 24–25) and Whitcher (1999)

Tel Halif (Lahav)

2.6

Equid remains

EBA IB

Levy et al. (1997, 24–25) and Whitcher (1999)

Halif Terrace

 

4.5

EBA IB

Whitcher (1999) and Kansa et al. (2005)

Megiddo

 

Small equids

EBA IB or EBA III

Bate (1938, 211)

Tell Jenin

1.0

1 complete E. asinus

EBA IB?

Al-Zawahra and Ezzughayyar (1998)

Tell Jenin

1.0

1 complete E. caballus

EBA IB?

Al-Zawahra and Ezzughayyar (1998)

Tel Kinrot

0.8

Three bones identified as ass, no phase of the EB given

EBA I-II

Hellwing (1988–1989)

Ikrit

?

E. asinus

EBA II

Davis (1980)

Tel Na’ama

n/a

One bone from an E. asinus found in an IBA context with mixed material of the EBA II

EBA II

Greenberg et al. (1998)

Gamla

2.7

Three donkey bones mentioned in Horwitz and Tchernov

EBA II?

Horwitz and Tchernov (1989, Fig. 2)

Qiryat Ata

0.8

Few equid bones

EBA II

Sade (2000) (area L) and Horwitz (2003a, 229–230, Table 8.2) (areas A–G)

Tel Aphek

2.1

One identified bone from E. asinus

EBA II

Hellwing (2000, 304, Tables 15.2, 15.16)

Tel Dalit

1.6

Remains of donkeys

EBA II

Horwitz et al. (1996)

‘Ai (et-Tell)

n/a

One donkey jaw bone reported from Phase IV of the sanctuary

EBA II

Callaway (1972, 190)

Lod

n/a

Complete skeleton of a donkey found in situ -Eisenmann 2012b also ids this as E. asinus

EBA II

Yannai and Marder (2001) and Milevski (2011)

Arad

2.2

Remains of probable donkeys in different frequencies

EBA II

Lernau (1978)

Arad

3.3

Remains of probable donkeys in different frequencies

EBA II

Lernau (1978)

Arad

1.0

Remains of probable donkeys in different frequencies

EBA II

Lernau (1978)

Arad

n/a

One mandible of a small asss

EBA II

Davis (1976)

Arad

n/a

Three complete metarcapi of mule or a horse

EBA II

Davis (1976)

Biqat Uvda

1.5?

A fragment of a proximal metacarpal of an equid, probably E. asinus

EBA II

Horwitz et al. (2001, 122)

Tel Yarmuth

?

Bones from E. asinus

EBA II-III

Davis (1988, 144–145)

Tel Nagila

1.2

Equid remains – no species id

EBA II-III?

Ducos (1968) and Whitcher Kansa (2004, Table 1)

Megiddo

0.2

Three bones from a donkey

EBA III

Wapnish and Hesse (2000, 432, Table 14.1)

Tel Qashish

0.4

One bone probably from a donkey

EBA III

Horwitz (2003b, 433, Table 39)

Tel Azekah

n/a

Two complete skeletons of young E. asinus found in area S1.

EBA III

Sapir-Hen et al. (2017)

Tel es-Safi

n/a

One complete skeleton of E. asinus found in a pit in area E, two more skeletons recently found in the same area

EBA III

Greenfield et al. (2012)

Tel Erani (Gat)

3.0

Equids referred to but no species given, metatarsal III; Eisenmann 2012b refers to an almost complete skeleton studied by Ducos as belonging to E. asinus

EBA III

Ducos (1968), Horwitz and Tchernov (1989, 290), Whitcher Kansa (2004, Table 1), Marshall (2007), and Grigson (2012, 195)

Tel Lachish

n/a

6 metatarsal III from a small equid, believed to be a donkey

EBA III

Bate (1958) and Marshall (2007)

Tel Lachish

40.0

Exceptional abundance of equid bones (n = 8) in the small EBA III faunal sample

EBA III

Croft (2004, Table 33.3)

Tel es-Sakan

0.6

One complete skeleton found in a structure interpreted as showing public significance plus isolated bones

EBA III

de Miroschedji et al. (2001, 97)

Tel Halif (Lahav)

2.0

Equids referred Cf. donkeys

EBA III

Seger et al. (1990)

Khirbet el-Minsahlat

0.4

Equus sp. -probably donkeys

EBA III-IV

Makarewicz (2005, 167–181)

Jericho

3.9

E. asinus

EBA

Clutton-Brock (1979)

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Milevski, I., Horwitz, L.K. (2019). Domestication of the Donkey (Equus asinus) in the Southern Levant: Archaeozoology, Iconography and Economy. In: Kowner, R., Bar-Oz, G., Biran, M., Shahar, M., Shelach-Lavi, G. (eds) Animals and Human Society in Asia. The Palgrave Macmillan Animal Ethics Series. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24363-0_4

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