Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Antithrombotic Effects of Naturally Derived Products on Coagulation and Platelet Function

  • Protocol
  • First Online:
Anticoagulants, Antiplatelets, and Thrombolytics

Part of the book series: Methods in Molecular Biology ((MIMB,volume 663))

Abstract

To date, there have been few systematic studies of the antiplatelet and/or anticoagulant effects of natural products. According to the Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, approximately 180 dietary supplements have the potential to interact with warfarin, and more than 120 may interact with aspirin, clopidogrel, and dipyridamole. These include anise and dong quai (anticoagulant effects); omega 3-fatty acids in fish oil, ajoene in garlic, ginger, ginko, and vitamin E (antiplatelet properties); fucus (heparin-like activity); danshen (antithrombin III-like activity and anticoagulant bioavailability); and St. John’s Wort and American Ginseng (interference with drug metabolism). Other supplements, such as high doses of vitamin E (vitamin K antagonist activity), alfalfa (high-vitamin K content), and coenzyme Q10 (vitamin K-like activity), may affect blood clotting, which is dependent on vitamin K. Studies are needed to understand the role of various dietary supplements in thrombosis and their interactions with standard anticoagulants and antiplatelet drugs.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Protocol
USD 49.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Gaede, A., and Terres, W. (1999) Therapy of acute coronary syndrome. Aspirin, heparin, low-molecular-weight heparin, hirudin and GP-IIb/IIIa blockers Herz 24, 353–62.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Vasudev, S.C., Chandy, T., Sharma, C.P., Mohanty, M., and Umasankar, P.R. (2000) Synergistic effect of released aspirin/heparin for preventing bovine pericardial calcification Artif Organs 24, 129–36.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Massel, D., and Little, S.H. (2001) Risks and benefits of adding anti-platelet therapy to warfarin among patients with prosthetic heart valves: a meta-analysis J Am Coll Cardiol 37, 569–78.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Akarasereenont, P., Chotewuttakorn, S., Aiamsa-Ard, T., and Thaworn, A. (2001) The activation of platelet aggregation by human cholangiocarcinoma cells is mediated through thrombin receptor J Med Assoc Thai 84(Suppl 3), S710–21.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Biggerstaff, J.P., Seth, N.B., Meyer, T.V., Amirkhosravi, A., and Francis, J.L. (1998) Fibrin monomer increases platelet adherence to tumor cells in a flowing system: a possible role in metastasis? Thromb Res 92, S53–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Bhat, K.P.L., Kosmeder, J.W., 2nd, and Pezzuto, J.M. (2001) Biological effects of resveratrol Antioxid Redox Signal 3, 1041–64.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Olas, B., Wachowicz, B., Saluk-Juszczak, J., and Zielinski, T. (2002) Effect of resveratrol, a natural polyphenolic compound, on platelet activation induced by endotoxin or thrombin Thromb Res 107, 141–5.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Wang, Z., Zou, J., Huang, Y., Cao, K., Xu, Y., and Wu, J.M. (2002) Effect of resveratrol on platelet aggregation in vivo and in vitro Chin Med J (Engl) 115, 378–80.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Kris-Etherton, P.M., Hecker, K.D., Bonanome, A., Coval, S.M., Binkoski, A.E., Hilpert, K.F., Griel, A.E., and Etherton, T.D. (2002) Bioactive compounds in foods: their role in the prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer Am J Med 113(Suppl 9B), 71–88S.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Deana, R., Turetta, L., Donella-Deana, A., Dona, M., Brunati, A.M., De Michiel, L., and Garbisa, S. (2003) Green tea epigallocatechin-3-gallate inhibits platelet signalling pathways triggered by both proteolytic and non-proteolytic agonists Thromb Haemost 89, 866–74.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Kang, W.S., Chung, K.H., Chung, J.H., Lee, J.Y., Park, J.B., Zhang, Y.H., Yoo, H.S., and Yun, Y.P. (2001) Antiplatelet activity of green tea catechins is mediated by inhibition of cytoplasmic calcium increase J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 38, 875–84.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Kang, W.S., Lim, I.H., Yuk, D.Y., Chung, K.H., Park, J.B., Yoo, H.S., and Yun, Y.P. (1999) Antithrombotic activities of green tea catechins and (-)-epigallocatechin gallate Thromb Res 96, 229–37.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Kazi, A., Smith, D.M., Daniel, K., Zhong, S., Gupta, P., Bosley, M.E., and Dou, Q.P. (2002) Potential molecular targets of tea polyphenols in human tumor cells: significance in cancer prevention In Vivo 16, 397–403.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Sachinidis, A., Seul, C., Seewald, S., Ahn, H., Ko, Y., and Vetter, H. (2000) Green tea compounds inhibit tyrosine phosphorylation of PDGF beta-receptor and transformation of A172 human glioblastoma FEBS Lett 471, 51–5.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Ali, M., Afzal, M., Gubler, C.J., and Burka, J.F. (1990) A potent thromboxane formation inhibitor in green tea leaves Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 40, 281–3.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Hodgson, J.M., Puddey, I.B., Burke, V., Beilin, L.J., Mori, T.A., and Chan, S.Y. (2002) Acute effects of ingestion of black tea on postprandial platelet aggregation in human subjects Br J Nutr 87, 141–5.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Kondo, K., Suzuki, Y., Ikeda, Y., and Umemura, K. (2002) Genistein, an isoflavone included in soy, inhibits thrombotic vessel occlusion in the mouse femoral artery and in vitro platelet aggregation Eur J Pharmacol 455, 53–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Ozaki, Y., Yatomi, Y., Jinnai, Y., and Kume, S. (1993) Effects of genistein, a tyrosine kinase inhibitor, on platelet functions. Genistein attenuates thrombin-induced Ca2+ mobilization in human platelets by affecting polyphosphoinositide turnover Biochem Pharmacol 46, 395–403.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Liu, W., Song, Z.J., and Liang, N.C. (1998) Effects of genistein on aggregation and cytosolic free calcium in pig platelets Zhongguo Yao Li Xue Bao 19, 540–2.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. McNicol, A. (1993) The effects of genistein on platelet function are due to thromboxane receptor antagonism rather than inhibition of tyrosine kinase Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 48, 379–84.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Chinni, S.R., Alhasan, S.A., Multani, A.S., Pathak, S., and Sarkar, F.H. (2003) Pleotropic effects of genistein on MCF-7 breast cancer cells Int J Mol Med 12, 29–34.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Myoung, H., Hong, S.P., Yun, P.Y., Lee, J.H., and Kim, M.J. (2003) Anti-cancer effect of genistein in oral squamous cell carcinoma with respect to angiogenesis and in vitro invasion Cancer Sci 94, 215–20.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Belisario, M.A., Tafuri, S., Di Domenico, C., Della Morte, R., Squillacioti, C., Lucisano, A., and Staiano, N. (2000) Immobilised echistatin promotes platelet adhesion and protein tyrosine phosphorylation Biochim Biophys Acta 1497, 227–36.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Kumar, C.C., Nie, H., Rogers, C.P., Malkowski, M., Maxwell, E., Catino, J.J., and Armstrong, L. (1997) Biochemical characterization of the binding of echistatin to integrin alphavbeta3 receptor J Pharmacol Exp Ther 283, 843–53.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Staiano, N., Della Morte, R., Di Domenico, C., Tafuri, S., Squillacioti, C., Belisario, M.A., and Di Natale, P. (1997) Echistatin inhibits pp72syk and pp125FAK phosphorylation in fibrinogen-adherent platelets Biochimie 79, 769–73.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Tan, L., Kowalska, M.A., Romo, G.M., Lopez, J.A., Darzynkiewicz, Z., and Niewiarowski, S. (1999) Identification and characterization of endothelial glycoprotein Ib using viper venom proteins modulating cell adhesion Blood 93, 2605–16.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Chiu, P.J., Vemulapalli, S., Chintala, M., Kurowski, S., Tetzloff, G.G., Brown, A.D., and Sybertz, E.J. (1997) Inhibition of platelet adhesion and aggregation by E4021, a type V phosphodiesterase inhibitor, in guinea pigs Naunyn Schmiedeberg’s Arch Pharmacol 355, 463–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Della Morte, R., Squillacioti, C., Garbi, C., Derkinderen, P., Belisario, M.A., Girault, J.A., Di Natale, P., Nitsch, L., and Staiano, N. (2000) Echistatin inhibits pp125FAK autophosphorylation, paxillin phosphorylation and pp125FAK-paxillin interaction in fibronectin-adherent melanoma cells Eur J Biochem 267, 5047–54.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Puri, R.N., and Colman, R.W. (1993) Thrombin- and cathepsin G-induced platelet aggregation: effect of protein kinase C inhibitors Anal Biochem 210, 50–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Tzeng, S.H., Ko, W.C., Ko, F.N., and Teng, C.M. (1991) Inhibition of platelet aggregation by some flavonoids Thromb Res 64, 91–100.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Fotsis, T., Pepper, M.S., Montesano, R., Aktas, E., Breit, S., Schweigerer, L., Rasku, S., Wahala, K., and Adlercreutz, H. (1998) Phytoestrogens and inhibition of angiogenesis Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metab 12, 649–66.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Lee, W.R., Shen, S.C., Lin, H.Y., Hou, W.C., Yang, L.L., and Chen, Y.C. (2002) Wogonin and fisetin induce apoptosis in human promyeloleukemic cells, accompanied by a decrease of reactive oxygen species, and activation of caspase 3 and Ca(2+)-dependent endonuclease Biochem Pharmacol 63, 225–36.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Blania, G., and Spangenberg, B. (1991) Formation of allicin from dried garlic (Allium sativum): a simple HPTLC method for simultaneous determination of allicin and ajoene in dried garlic and garlic preparations Planta Med 57, 371–5.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Makheja, A.N., and Bailey, J.M. (1990) Antiplatelet constituents of garlic and onion Agents Actions 29, 360–3.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Mayeux, P.R., Agrawal, K.C., Tou, J.S., King, B.T., Lippton, H.L., Hyman, A.L., Kadowitz, P.J., and McNamara, D.B. (1988) The pharmacological effects of allicin, a constituent of garlic oil Agents Actions 25, 182–90.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Rendu, F., Daveloose, D., Debouzy, J.C., Bourdeau, N., Levy-Toledano, S., Jain, M.K., and Apitz-Castro, R. (1989) Ajoene, the antiplatelet compound derived from garlic, specifically inhibits platelet release reaction by affecting the plasma membrane internal microviscosity Biochem Pharmacol 38, 1321–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Srivastava, K.C., and Tyagi, O.D. (1993) Effects of a garlic-derived principle (ajoene) on aggregation and arachidonic acid metabolism in human blood platelets Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 49, 587–95.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Hirsch, K., Danilenko, M., Giat, J., Miron, T., Rabinkov, A., Wilchek, M., Mirelman, D., Levy, J., and Sharoni, Y. (2000) Effect of purified allicin, the major ingredient of freshly crushed garlic, on cancer cell proliferation Nutr Cancer 38, 245–54.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Ahmed, N., Laverick, L., Sammons, J., Zhang, H., Maslin, D.J., and Hassan, H.T. (2001) Ajoene, a garlic-derived natural compound, enhances chemotherapy-induced apoptosis in human myeloid leukaemia CD34-positive resistant cells Anticancer Res 21, 3519–23.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Bordia, A., Verma, S.K., and Srivastava, K.C. (1998) Effect of garlic (Allium sativum) on blood lipids, blood sugar, fibrinogen and fibrinolytic activity in patients with coronary artery disease Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 58, 257–63.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Qi, R., Liao, F., Inoue, K., Yatomi, Y., Sato, K., and Ozaki, Y. (2000) Inhibition by diallyl trisulfide, a garlic component, of intracellular Ca(2+) mobilization without affecting inositol-1,4, 5-trisphosphate (IP(3)) formation in activated platelets Biochem Pharmacol 60, 1475–83.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Li, Y., and Lu, Y.Y. (2002) Isolation of diallyl trisulfide inducible differentially expressed genes in human gastric cancer cells by modified cDNA representational difference analysis DNA Cell Biol 21, 771–80.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Feng, Z.H., Zhang, G.M., Hao, T.L., Zhou, B., Zhang, H., and Jiang, Z.Y. (1994) Effect of diallyl trisulfide on the activation of T cell and macrophage-mediated cytotoxicity J Tongji Med Univ 14, 142–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Freedman, J.E., and Keaney, J.F., Jr. (2001) Vitamin E inhibition of platelet aggregation is independent of antioxidant activity J Nutr 131, 374–7S.

    Google Scholar 

  45. Steiner, M. (1999) Vitamin E, a modifier of platelet function: rationale and use in cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disease Nutr Rev 57, 306–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Mabile, L., Bruckdorfer, K.R., and Rice-Evans, C. (1999) Moderate supplementation with natural alpha-tocopherol decreases platelet aggregation and low-density lipoprotein oxidation Atherosclerosis 147, 177–85.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Steiner, M. (1991) Influence of vitamin E on platelet function in humans J Am Coll Nutr 10, 466–73.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Zbikowska, H.M., and Olas, B. (2000) Antioxidants with carcinostatic activity (resveratrol, vitamin E and selenium) in modulation of blood platelet adhesion J Physiol Pharmacol 51, 513–20.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Suttuar, J., Masova, L., and Scheiner, T. (2002) Role of free radicals in blood platelet activation Cas Lek Cesk 141(Suppl.)

    Google Scholar 

  50. Kakishita, E., Suehiro, A., Oura, Y., and Nagai, K. (1990) Inhibitory effect of vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) on spontaneous platelet aggregation in whole blood Thromb Res 60, 489–99.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Toivanen, J.L. (1987) Effects of selenium, vitamin E and vitamin C on human prostacyclin and thromboxane synthesis in vitro Prostaglandins Leukot Med 26, 265–80.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Bakaltcheva, I., Gyimah, D., and Reid, T. (2001) Effects of alpha-tocopherol on platelets and the coagulation system Platelets 12, 389–94.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Ricciarelli, R., Zingg, J.M., and Azzi, A. (2002) The 80th anniversary of vitamin E: beyond its antioxidant properties Biol Chem 383, 457–65.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. McCarty, M.F. (1986) An antithrombotic role for nutritional antioxidants: implications for tumor metastasis and other pathologies Med Hypotheses 19, 345–57.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Corl, C.M., Cao, Y.Z., Cohen, Z.S., and Sordillo, L.M. (2003) Oxidant stress enhances Lyso-PAF-AcT activity by modifying phospholipase D and phosphatidic acid in aortic endothelial cells Biochem Biophys Res Commun 302, 610–4.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Hampel, G., Watanabe, K., Weksler, B.B., and Jaffe, E.A. (1989) Selenium deficiency inhibits prostacyclin release and enhances production of platelet activating factor by human endothelial cells Biochim Biophys Acta 1006, 151–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Perona, G., Schiavon, R., Guidi, G.C., Veneri, D., and Minuz, P. (1990) Selenium dependent glutathione peroxidase: a physiological regulatory system for platelet function Thromb Haemost 64, 312–8.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Ricetti, M.M., Guidi, G.C., Tecchio, C., Bellisola, G., Rigo, A., and Perona, G. (1999) Effects of sodium selenite on in vitro interactions between platelets and endothelial cells Int J Clin Lab Res 29, 80–4.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Vitoux, D., Chappuis, P., Arnaud, J., Bost, M., Accominotti, M., and Roussel, A.M. (1996) Selenium, glutathione peroxidase, peroxides and platelet functions Ann Biol Clin (Paris) 54, 181–7.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Brtkova, A. (1992) Biological effects of selenium Bratisl Lek Listy 93, 629–32.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Costa, A., Sacchini, V., and Decensi, A. (1993) Retinoids and tamoxifen in breast cancer chemoprevention Int J Clin Lab Res 23, 53–5.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Parcell, S. (2002) Sulfur in human nutrition and applications in medicine Altern Med Rev 7, 22–44.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Barrager, E., Veltmann, J.R., Jr., Schauss, A.G., and Schiller, R.N. (2002) A multicentered, open-label trial on the safety and efficacy of methylsulfonylmethane in the treatment of seasonal allergic rhinitis J Altern Complement Med 8, 167–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Ebisuzaki, K. (2003) Aspirin and methylsulfonylmethane (MSM): a search for common mechanisms, with implications for cancer prevention Anticancer Res 23, 453–8.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Thrombosis prevention – disease therapies protocol. Life extension (Accessed at http://www.lef.org/protocols/prtcl-155.shtml.)

  66. Baruch, D., Franssen, J., Hemker, H.C., and Lindhout, T. (1985) Effect of heparin and low molecular weight heparins on thrombin-induced blood platelet activation in the absence of antithrombin III Thromb Res 38, 447–58.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Marsh Lyle, E., Lewis, S.D., Lehman, E.D., Gardell, S.J., Motzel, S.L., and Lynch, J.J., Jr. (1998) Assessment of thrombin inhibitor efficacy in a novel rabbit model of simultaneous arterial and venous thrombosis Thromb Haemost 79, 656–62.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Atagi, S., Sone, S., Fukuta, K., and Ogura, T. (1992) Inhibition by fibrin coagulation of lung cancer cell destruction by human interleukin-2-activated killer cells Jpn J Cancer Res 83, 1088–94.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Weitz, J.I., and Crowther, M. (2002) Direct thrombin inhibitors Thromb Res 106, V275–84.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Warkentin, T.E. (1997) Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Pathogenesis, frequency, avoidance and management Drug Saf 17, 325–41.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Markwardt, F. (2002) Hirudin as alternative anticoagulant – a historical review Semin Thromb Hemost 28, 405–14.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Guillin, M.C. (1998) Thrombin and its pharmacologic regulation Presse Med 27 (Suppl 2), 22–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Shen, G.X. (2001) Development and current applications of thrombin-specific inhibitors Curr Drug Targets Cardiovasc Haematol Disord 1, 41–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Eikelboom, J.W., and French, J. (2002) Management of patients with acute coronary syndromes: what is the clinical role of direct thrombin inhibitors? Drugs 62, 1839–52.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Bode, C., Hanson, S.R., Schmedtje, J.F., Jr., Haber, E., Mehwald, P., Kelly, A.B., Harker, L.A., and Runge, M.S. (1997) Antithrombotic potency of hirudin is increased in nonhuman primates by fibrin targeting Circulation 95, 800–4.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Bossavy, J.P., Sakariassen, K.S., Rubsamen, K., Thalamas, C., Boneu, B., and Cadroy, Y. (1999) Comparison of the antithrombotic effect of PEG-hirudin and heparin in a human ex vivo model of arterial thrombosis Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 19, 1348–53.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Pharmaceutical Research Institute, Albany College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Rensselaer, NY, USA

    Shaker A. Mousa

Authors
  1. Shaker A. Mousa
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. , Pharmaceutical Research Institute, Albany College of Pharmacy and Health Sc, Discovery Drive One, Rensselaer, 12144, New York, USA

    Shaker A. Mousa

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2010 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this protocol

Cite this protocol

Mousa, S.A. (2010). Antithrombotic Effects of Naturally Derived Products on Coagulation and Platelet Function. In: Mousa, S. (eds) Anticoagulants, Antiplatelets, and Thrombolytics. Methods in Molecular Biology, vol 663. Humana Press, Totowa, NJ. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-60761-803-4_9

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-60761-803-4_9

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Humana Press, Totowa, NJ

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-60761-802-7

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-60761-803-4

  • eBook Packages: Springer Protocols

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation