Summary
Successful completion of fertilization in mammals is dependent on three membrane fusion events. These are (1) the acrosome reaction of sperm, (2) the fusion of sperm and egg plasma membranes to form a zygote, and (3) the cortical reaction of fertilized eggs. Extensive research into the molecular basis of each of these events has identified candidate proteins and factors involved in fusion of membranes during the mammalian fertilization process. Some of this information is provided here.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Alberts, B., Johnson, A., Lewis, J., Raff, M., Roberts, K., and Walter, P. (2002) Molecular Biology of the Cell (4th ed.). Garland Science, New York.
Jahn, R., Lang, T., and Sudhof, T. C. (2003) Membrane fusion. Cell 112, 519–533.
Lodish, H., Berk, A., Matsudaira, P., Kaiser, C. A., Krieger, M., Scott, M. P., Zipursky, S. L., and Darnell, J. (2004) Molecular Cell Biology (5th ed.). Freeman, New York.
Evans, J. P. and Florman, H. M. (2002) The state of the union: the cell biology of fertilization. Nat. Cell Biol. 4 (Suppl. 1), S57–S63.
Evans, J. P. (2002) The molecular basis of sperm–oocyte membrane interactions during mammalian fertilization. Hum. Reprod. Update 8, 297–311.
Florman, H. M. and Ducibella, T. (2006) Fertilization in mammals, in The Physiology of Reproduction (Neill J.D., ed.), vol. 1. Elsevier, San Diego, pp. 55–112.
Primakoff, P. and Myles, D. G. (2002) Gamete fusion in mammals, in Fertilization (Hardy, D. M., ed.). Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 303–318.
Ramalho-Santos, J., Schatten, G., and Moreno, R. D. (2002) Control of membrane fusion during spermiogenesis and the acrosome reaction. Biol. Reprod. 69, 254–260.
Stein, K. K., Primakoff, P., and Myles, D. (2004) Sperm–egg fusion: events at the plasma membrane. J. Cell Sci. 117, 6269–6274.
Wassarman, P. M. (1999) Mammalian fertilization: molecular aspects of gamete adhesion, exocytosis, and fusion. Cell 96, 175–183.
Wassarman, P. M., Jovine, L., and Litscher, E. S. (2001) A profile of fertilization in mammals. Nat. Cell Biol. 3, E59–E64.
Chernomordik, L. V. and Kozlov, M. M. (2003) Protein–lipid interplay in fusion and fission of biological membranes. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 72, 175–207.
Jahn, R. and Grubmuller, H. (2002) Membrane fusion. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 14, 488–495.
Mayer, A. (2002) Membrane fusion in eukaryotic cells. Annu. Rev. Cell Dev. Biol. 18, 289–314.
Eddy, E. M. (2006) The spermatozoon, in The Physiology of Reproduction (Neill J. D., ed.), vol. 1. Elsevier, San Diego, pp. 3–54.
Gerton, G. L. (2002) Function of the sperm acrosome, in Fertilization (Hardy, D. M., ed.). Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 265–302.
Yanagimachi, R. (1994) Mammalian fertilization, in The Physiology of Reproduction (Knobil E. and Neill J. D., eds.), vol. 1. Raven Press, New York, pp. 189–317.
Wassarman, P. M. and Albertini, D. F. (1994) Cellular and molecular biology of the mammalian ovum, in The Physiology of Reproduction (Knobil, E. Neill, J. D., eds.), vol. 1. Raven Press, N Y, pp. 79–122.
Yanagimachi, R. (1981) Mechanisms of fertilization in mammals, in Fertilization and Embryonic Development In Vitro (Mastroianni L. and Biggers J. D., eds.). Plenum Press, New York, pp. 81–187.
Jaiswal, B. S. and Eisenbach, M. (2002) Capacitation, in Fertilization (Hardy, D. M., ed.). Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 57–117.
Kim, K.-S. and Gerton, G. L. (2003) Differential release of soluble and matrix components: evidence for intermediate states of secretion during spontaneous acro- somal exocytosis in mouse sperm. Dev. Biol. 264, 141–152.
Kopf, G. S., Ning, X. P., Visconti, P. E., Purdon, M., Galantino-Homer, H., and Fornes, M. (1999) Signaling mechanisms controlling mammalian sperm fertiliza- tion competence and activation. In The Male Gamete (Gagnon C., ed.) 105–118. Cache River Press, Vienna, IL.
Florman, H. M., Kirkman-Brown, J., Brown, J. C., Jungnickel, M. K., and Sutton, K. A. (2003) The acrosome reaction: an example of egg-activated signal transduc- tion in sperm. ChemTracts Biochem. Mol. Biol. 16, 126–133.
Kopf, G. S. (2002) Signal transduction mechanisms regulating sperm acrosomal exocytosis, in Fertilization (Hardy, D. M., ed.). Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 181–223.
Wassarman, P. M., Bleil, J. D., Florman, H. M., Greve, J. M., Roller, R. J., Salzmann, G. S., and Samuels, F. G. (1985) The mouse egg 's sperm receptor: what is it and how does it work? Cold Spring Harb. Symp. Quant. Biol. 50, 11–19.
Arnoult, C., Zeng, Y. , and Florman, H. M. (1996) ZP3-dependent activation of sperm cation channels regulates acrosomal secretion during mammalian fertilization. J. Cell Biol. 134, 637–645.
Darszon, A., Acevedo, J. J., Galindo, B. E., Hernandez-Gonzalez, E. O., Nishigaki, T., Trevino, C. L., Wood, C., and Beltran, C. (2006) Sperm channel diversity and functional multiplicity. Reproduction 131, 977–988.
Jungnickel, M. K., Marrero, H., Birnbaumer, L., Lemos, J. R., and Florman, H. M. (2001) Trp2 regulates entry of Ca2+ into mouse sperm triggered by egg ZP3. Nat. Cell Biol. 5, 499–502.
De Blas, G. A., Roggero, C. M., Tomes, C. N., and Mayorga, L. S. (2005) Dynamics of SNARE assembly and disassembly during sperm acrosomal exocytosis. PloS Biol. 3, e323.
Iida, H., Yoshinaga, Y., Tanaka, S., Toshimori, K., and Mori, T. (1999) Identification of Rab3A GTPase as an acrosome-associated small GTP-binding protein in rat sperm. Dev. Biol. 211, 144–155.
Ramalho-Santos, J., Moreno, R. D., Sutovsky, P., Chan, A. W., Hewitson, L., Wessel, G. M., Simerly, C. R., and Schatten, G. (2000) SNAREs in mammalian sperm: possible implications for fertilization. Dev. Biol. 223, 54–69.
Tomes, C. N., Michaut, M., De Blas, G. A., Visconti, P., Matti, U., and Mayorga, L. S. (2002) SNARE complex assembly is required for human sperm acrosome reaction. Dev. Biol. 243, 326–338.
Tomes, C. N., De Blas, G. A., Michaut, M. A., Farre, E. V., Cherhitin, O., Visconti, P. E., and Mayorga, L. S. (2005) Alpha-SNAP and NSF are required in a priming step during the human sperm acrosome reaction. Mol. Hum. Reprod. 11, 43–51.
Yunes, R., Michaut, M., Tomes, C., and Mayorga, L. S. (2000) Rab3A triggers the acrosome reaction in permeabilized human spermatozoa. Biol. Reprod. 62, 1084–1089.
Howes, E. A. and Jones, R. (2003) Secondary binding of mammalian sperm to the zona pellucida. ChemTracts Biochem. Mol. Biol. 16, 134–141.
Oh, E., Wortzman, G. B., Zhu, X., and Evans, J. P. (2003) Getting sperm and egg together: the molecules of gamete membrane interactions. ChemTracts Biochem. Mol. Biol. 16, 142–157.
White, J. M. (2003) ADAMs: modulators of cell–cell and cell–matrix interactions. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 15, 598–606.
Cho, C., Bunch, D. O., Faure, J.-E., Goulding, E. H., Eddy, E. M., Primakoff, P., and Myles, D. G. (1998) Fertilization defects in sperm from mice lacking fertilin β. Science 281, 1857–1859.
Cho, C., Ge H., Branciforte, D., Primakoff, P., and Myles, D. G. (2000) Analysis of mouse fertilin in wild-type and fertilin β−/− sperm: evidence for C-terminal modification, α / β dimerization, and lack of essential role of fertilin b in sperm–egg fusion. Dev. Biol. 222, 289–295.
He, Z. Y., Brakefusch, C., Fassler, R., Kreidberg, J. A., Primakoff, P. , and Myles, D. G. (2003) None of the integrins known to be present on the mouse egg or to be ADAM receptors are essential for sperm–egg binding and fusion. Dev. Biol. 254, 226–237.
Kim, E., Yamashita, M., Nakanishi, T., Park, K.-E., Kimura, M., Kashiwabara, S.-I., and Baba, T. (2006) Mouse sperm lacking ADAM1β /ADAM2 fertilin can fuse with the egg plasma membrane and effect fertilization. J. Biol. Chem. 281, 5634–5639.
Miller, B. J., Georges-Labouesse, E., Primakoff, P., and Myles, D. G. (2000) Normal fertilization occurs with eggs lacking the integrin α 6 β1 and is CD9-depen-dent. J. Cell Biol. 149, 1289–1295.
Nishimura, H., Cho, C., Branciforte, D. R., Myles, D. G., and Primakoff, P. (2001) Analysis of loss of adhesive function in sperm lacking cyritestin or fertilin β. Dev. Biol. 233, 204–213.
Shamsadin, R., Adham, I.M., Nayernia, K., Heinlein, U. A. O., Oberwinkler, H., and Engel, W. (1999) Male mice deficient for germ-cell cyritestin are infertile. Biol. Reprod. 61, 1445–1451.
Stein, K. K., Go, J. C., Lane, W. S., Primakoff, P., and Myles, D. G. (2006) Proteomic analysis of sperm regions that mediate sperm–egg interactions. Proteomics 6, 3533–3543.
Hemler, M. E. (1998) Integrin associated proteins. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 10, 578–585.
Porter, J. C. and Hogg, N. (1998) Integrins take partners: cross-talk between integ- rins and other membrane receptors. Trends Cell Biol. 8, 390–396.
Tachibana, I. and Hemler, M. E. (1999) Role of transmembrane 4 superfamily (TM4SF) proteins CD9 and CD81 in muscle cell fusion and myotube maintenance. J. Cell Biol. 146, 893–904.
Kaji, K., Odu, S., Shikano, T., Ohnuki, T., Uematsu, Y. , Sakagami, J., Tada, N., Miyazaki, S., and Kudo, A. (2000) The gamete fusion process is defective in eggs of CD9-deficient mice. Nat. Genet. 24, 279–282.
Le Naour, F., Rubinstein, E., Jasmin, C., Prenant, M., and Boucheix, C. (2000) Severely reduced female fertility in CD9-deficient mice. Science 287, 319–321.
Miyado, K., Yamada, G., Yamada, S., Hasuwa, H., Nakamura, Y., Ryu, F., Suzuki, K., Kosai, K., Inoue, K., Ogura, A., Okabe, M., and Mekada, E. (2000) Requirement of CD9 on the egg plasma membrane for fertilization. Science 287, 321–324.
Zhu, G. Z., Miller, B. J., Boucheix, C., Rubinstein, E., Liu, C. C., Hynes, R. O., Myles, D. G., and Primakoff, P. (2002) Residues SFQ (173–175) in the large extracellular loop of CD9 are required for gamete fusion. Development 129, 1995–2002.
Chen, M. S., Tung, K. S. K., Coonrod, S. A., Takahashi, Y., Bigler, D., Chang, A., Yamashita, Y., Kincade, P. W., Herr, J. C., and White, J. M. (1999) Role of integrin-associated protein CD9 in binding between sperm ADAM2 and the egg integrin α 6β1: implications for murine fertilization. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., U.S.A. 96, 11830–11835.
Ellerman, D. A., Ha, C., Primakoff, P., Myles, D. G., and Dveksler, G. S. (2003) Direct binding of the ligand PSG17 to CD9 requires a CD9 site essential for sperm–egg fusion. Mol. Biol. Cell 14, 5098–5103.
Takahashi, Y., Bigler, D., Ito, Y., and White, J. M. (2001) Sequence specific interaction between the disintegrin domain of mouse ADAM 3 and murine eggs: role of beta1 integrin-associated proteins CD9, CD81, and CD98. Mol. Biol. Cell 12, 809–820.
Inoue, N., Ikawa, M., Isotani, A., and Okabe, M. (2005) The immunoglobin superfamily protein Izumo is required for sperm to fuse with eggs. Nature 434, 234–238.
Ellerman, D. A., Da Ros, V. G., Cohen, D. J., Busso, D., Morgenfeld, M. M., and Cuasnicu, P. S. (2002) Expression and structure–function analysis of de, a sperm cysteine-rich secretory protein that mediates gamete fusion. Biol. Reprod. 67, 1225–1231.
Alfieri, J. A., Martin, A. D., Takeda, J., Kondoh, G., Myles, D. G., and Primakoff, P. (2003) Infertility in female mice with an oocyte-specific knockout of GPI-anchored proteins. J. Cell Sci. 116, 2149–2155.
Coonrod, S. A., Naaby-Hansen, S., Shetty, J., Shibahara, H., Chen, M., White, J. M., and Herr, J. C. (1999) Treatment of mouse oocytes with PI-PLC releases 70-kDa (pI 5) and 35- to 45-kDa (pI 5.5) protein clusters from the egg surface and inhibits sperm–oolemma binding and fusion. Dev. Biol. 207, 334–349.
Kondoh, G., Tojo, H., Nakatani, Y., Komazawa, N., Murata, C., Yamagata, K., Maeda, Y., Kinoshita, T., Okabe, M., Taguchi, R., and Takeda, J. (2005) Angiotensin-converting enzyme is a GPI-anchored protein releasing factor crucial for fertilization. Nat. Med. 11, 160–166.
Fuchs, S., Frenzel, K., Hubert, C., Lyng, R., Muller, L., Michaud, A., Xiao, H. D., Adams, J. W., Capecchi, M. R., Corvol, P., Shur, B. D., and Bernstein, K. E. (2005) Male fertility is dependent on dipeptidase activity of testis ACE. Nat. Med. 11, 1139–1140.
Leisle, L., Parkin, E. T., Turner, A. J., Hooper, N. M. (2005) Angiotensin-convert- ing enzyme as a GPIase: a critical reevaluation. Nat. Med. 11, 1140–1142.
Runft, L. L., Jaffe, L. A., and Mehlmann, L. M. (2002) Egg activation at fertiliza-tion: where it all begins. Dev. Biol. 245, 237–254.
Swann, K. and Jones, K. T. (2002) Membrane events of egg activation, in Fertilization (Hardy, D. M., ed.). Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 319–346.
Ducibella, T. (1996) The cortical reaction and development of activation compe- tence in mammalian oocytes. Hum. Reprod. Update 2, 29–42.
Abbott, A. L. and Ducibella, T. (2001) Calcium and the control of mammalian cortical granule exocytosis. Front. Biosci. 6, d792–806.
Tsaadon, A., Eliyahu, E., Shtraizent, N., and Shalgi, R. (2006) When a sperm meets an egg: block to polyspermy. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 252, 107–114.
Eliyahu, E., Tsaadon, A., Shtraizent, N., and Shalgi, R. (2005) The involvement of protein kinase C and actin filaments in cortical granule exocytosis in the rat. Reproduction 129, 161–170.
Rossi, E. A., Li, Z., Feng, H., and Rubin, C. S. (1999) Characterization of the targeting, binding, and phosphorylation site domains of an A kinase anchor protein and a myristoylated alanine-rich C kinase substrate-like analog that are encoded by a single gene. J. Biol. Chem. 274, 27201–27210.
Evans, J. P. (1999) Sperm disintegrins, egg integrins, and other cell adhesion molecules of mammalian gamete plasma membrane interactions. Front. Biosci. 4, D114–D131.
Xu, Z., Abbott, A., Kopf, G. S., Schultz, R. M., and Ducibella, T. (1997) Spontaneous activation of ovulated mouse eggs: time-dependent effects on M-phase exit, cortical granule exocytosis, maternal messenger ribonucleic acid recruitment, and inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate sensitivity. Biol. Reprod. 57, 743–750.
Additional References
Austin C. R. and Short R. V. (eds.) (1983) Reproduction in Mammals, Book 1, Germ Cells and Fertilization. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England.
Dunbar B. S. and O'Rand M.G. (eds.) (1991) A Comparative Overview of Mammalian Fertilization. Plenum Press, New York.
Gwatkin R. B. L. (1977) Fertilization Mechanisms in Man and Mammals. Plenum Press, New York.
Wassarman P. M. (ed.) (1991) Elements of Mammalian Fertilization, vols. 1 and 2. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Acknowledgments
We are grateful to Elizabeth Chen for her kind invitation to write this chapter. Whenever possible, we have referred to articles and reviews published between 2000 and 2006. Our laboratory is supported in part by the National Institutes of Health (HD35105).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2008 Humana Press, a part of Springer Science + Business Media, LLC
About this protocol
Cite this protocol
Wassarman, P.M., Litscher, E.S. (2008). Mammalian Fertilization Is Dependent on Multiple Membrane Fusion Events*. In: Chen, E.H. (eds) Cell Fusion. Methods in Molecular Biology™, vol 475. Humana Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59745-250-2_6
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59745-250-2_6
Publisher Name: Humana Press
Print ISBN: 978-1-58829-911-6
Online ISBN: 978-1-59745-250-2
eBook Packages: Springer Protocols