Abstract
Functional elements in the genome express their function through physical association with particular proteins: transcription factors, components of the transcription machinery, specific histone modifications, and others. The genome-wide characterization of the protein-DNA interaction landscape of these proteins is thus a key approach toward the identification of candidate genomic regulatory regions. ChIP-seq (Chromatin Immunoprecipitation coupled with high-throughput sequencing) has emerged as the primary experimental methods for carrying out this task. Here, the ChIP-seq protocol is described together with some of the most important considerations for applying it in practice.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Gilmour DS, Lis JT (1984) Detecting protein-DNA interactions in vivo: distribution of RNA polymerase on specific bacterial genes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 81:4275–4279
Gilmour DS, Lis JT (1985) In vivo interactions of RNA polymerase II with genes of Drosophila melanogaster. Mol Cell Biol 5:2009–2018
Solomon MJ, Larsen PL, Varshavsky A (1988) Mapping protein-DNA interactions in vivo with formaldehyde: evidence that histone H4 is retained on a highly transcribed gene. Cell 53:937–947
Hecht A, Strahl-Bolsinger S, Grunstein M (1996) Spreading of transcriptional repressor SIR3 from telomeric heterochromatin. Nature 383(6595):92–96
Ren B, Robert F, Wyrick JJ et al (2000) Genome-wide location and function of DNA binding proteins. Science 290:2306–2309
Iyer VR, Horak CE, Scafe CS et al (2001) Genomic binding sites of the yeast cell-cycle transcription factors SBF and MBF. Nature 409:533–538
Horak CE, Snyder M (2002) ChIP-chip: a genomic approach for identifying transcription factor binding sites. Methods Enzymol 350:469–483
Lieb JD, Liu X, Botstein D, Brown PO (2001) Promoter-specific binding of Rap1 revealed by genome-wide maps of protein-DNA association. Nat Genet 28:327–334
Weinmann AS, Yan PS, Oberley MJ et al (2002) Isolating human transcription factor targets by coupling chromatin immunoprecipitation and CpG island microarray analysis. Genes Dev 16:235–244
Barski A, Cuddapah S, Cui K et al (2007) High-resolution profiling of histone methylations in the human genome. Cell 129:823–837
Mikkelsen TS, Ku M, Jaffe DB et al (2007) Genome-wide maps of chromatin state in pluripotent and lineage-committed cells. Nature 448:553–560
Robertson G, Hirst M, Bainbridge M et al (2007) Genome-wide profiles of STAT1 DNA association using chromatin immunoprecipitation and massively parallel sequencing. Nat Methods 4:651–657
Johnson DS, Mortazavi A, Myers RM et al (2007) Genome-wide mapping of in vivo protein-DNA interactions. Science 316:1497–1502
ENCODE Project Consortium (2012) An integrated encyclopedia of DNA elements in the human genome. Nature 489:57–74
Gerstein MB, Kundaje A, Hariharan M et al (2012) Architecture of the human regulatory network derived from ENCODE data. Nature 489:91–100
Mouse ENCODE Consortium (2014) A comparative encyclopedia of DNA elements in the mouse genome. Nature 515:355–364
modENCODE Consortium (2010) Identification of functional elements and regulatory circuits by Drosophila modENCODE. Science 330:1787–1797
Gerstein MB, Lu ZJ, Van Nostrand EL et al (2010) Integrative analysis of the Caenorhabditi selegans genome by the modENCODE project. Science 330:1775–1787
Negre N, Brown CD, Ma L et al (2011) A cis-regulatory map of the Drosophila genome. Nature 471:527–531
Roadmap Epigenomics Consortium (2015) Integrative analysis of 111 reference human epigenomes. Nature 518:317–330
Kellis M, Hardison RC, Wold BJ et al (2014) Defining functional DNA elements in the human genome. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 111:6131–6138
Guenther MG, Levine SS, Boyer LA et al (2007) A chromatin landmark and transcription initiation at most promoters in human cells. Cell 130:77–88
May D, Blow MJ, Kaplan T et al (2011) Large-scale discovery of enhancers from human heart tissue. Nat Genet 44:89–93
Rada-Iglesias A, Bajpai R, Swigut T et al (2010) A unique chromatin signature uncovers early developmental enhancers in humans. Nature 470:279–283
Visel A, Blow MJ, Li Z et al (2009) ChIPseq accurately predicts tissue-specific activity of enhancers. Nature 457:854–858
Visel A, Taher L, Girgis H et al (2013) A high-resolution enhancer atlas of the developing telencephalon. Cell 152:895–908
Heintzman ND, Hon GC, Hawkins RD et al (2009) Histone modifications at human enhancers reflect global cell-type-specific gene expression. Nature 459:108–112
Heintzman ND, Stuart RK, Hon G et al (2007) Distinct and predictive chromatin signatures of transcriptional promoters and enhancers in the human genome. Nat Genet 39:311–318
Bannister AJ, Schneider R, Myers FA, Thorne AW, Crane-Robinson C, Kouzarides T (2005) Spatial distribution of di- and trimethyl lysine 36 of histone H3 at active genes. J Biol Chem 280:17732–17736
Nguyen AT, Zhang Y (2011) The diverse functions of Dot1 and H3K79 methylation. Genes Dev 25:1345–1358
Phillips-Cremins JE, Corces VG (2013) Chromatin insulators: linking genome organization to cellular function. Mol Cell 50:461–474
Kyrchanova O, Georgiev P (2014) Chromatin insulators and long-distance interactions in Drosophila. FEBS Lett 588:8–14
Mortazavi A, Pepke S, Jansen C et al (2013) Integrating and mining the chromatin landscape of cell-type specificity using self-organizing maps. Genome Res 23:2136–2148
Hoffman MM, Ernst J, Wilder SP et al (2013) Integrative annotation of chromatin elements from ENCODE data. Nucleic Acids Res 41:827–841
Ernst J, Kellis M (2012) ChromHMM: automating chromatin-state discovery and characterization. Nat Methods 9:215–216
Savic D, Gertz J, Jain P, Cooper GM, Myers RM (2013) Mapping genome-wide transcription factor binding sites in frozen tissues. Epigenetics Chromatin 6:30
Gasper WC, Marinov GK, Pauli-Behn F et al (2014) Fully automated high-throughput chromatin immunoprecipitation for ChIP-seq: identifying ChIP-quality p300 monoclonal antibodies. Sci Rep 4:5152
Chen Y, Negre N, Li Q et al (2012) Systematic evaluation of factors influencing ChIP-seq fidelity. Nat Methods 9:609–614
Wang C, Xu J, Zhang D et al (2010) An effective approach for identification of in vivo protein-DNA binding sites from paired-end ChIP-Seq data. BMC Bioinformatics 11:81
Landt SG, Marinov GK, Kundaje A et al (2012) ChIP-seq guidelines and practices of the ENCODE and modENCODE consortia. Genome Res 22:1813–1831
Marinov GK, Kundaje A, Park PJ et al (2014) Large-scale quality analysis of published ChIP-seq data. G3 (Bethesda) 4:209–223
Daley T, Smith AD (2013) Predicting the molecular complexity of sequencing libraries. Nat Methods 10:325–327
Pepke S, Wold B, Mortazavi A (2009) Computation for ChIP-seq and RNA-seq studies. Nat Methods 6:S22–S32
Jung YL, Luquette LJ, Ho JW et al (2014) Impact of sequencing depth in ChIP-seq experiments. Nucleic Acids Res 42:e74
Niu W, Lu ZJ, Zhong M et al (2011) Diverse transcription factor binding features revealed by genome-wide ChIP-seq in C. elegans. Genome Res 21:245–254
Zeng PY, Vakoc CR, Chen ZC et al (2006) In vivo dual cross-linking for identification of indirect DNA-associated proteins by chromatin immunoprecipitation. Biotechniques 41:694
Blum R, Vethantham V, Bowman C et al (2012) Genome-wide identification of enhancers in skeletal muscle: the role of MyoD1. Genes Dev 26:2763–2779
Law MJ, Lower KM, Voon HP et al (2010) ATR-X syndrome protein targets tandem repeats and influences allele-specific expression in a size-dependent manner. Cell 143:367–378
Tian B, Yang J, Brasier AR (2012) Two-step cross-linking for analysis of protein-chromatin interactions. Methods Mol Biol 809:105–120
Nowak DE, Tian B, Brasier AR (2005) Two-step cross-linking method for identification of NF-κB gene network by chromatin immunoprecipitation. Biotechniques 39:715–725
Lin YC, Benner C, Mansson R et al (2012) Global changes in the nuclear positioning of genes and intra- and inter-domain genomic interactions that orchestrate B cell fate. Nat Immunol 13:1196–1204
Li G, Ruan X, Auerbach RK et al (2012) Extensive promoter-centered chromatin interactions provide a topological basis for transcription regulation. Cell 148:84–98
Auerbach RK, Euskirchen G, Rozowsky J et al (2009) Mapping accessible chromatin regions using Sono-Seq. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 106:14926–14931
Park D, Lee Y, Bhupindersingh G, Iyer VR (2013) WidespreadmisinterpretableChIP-seq bias in yeast. PLoS One 8:e83506
Teytelman L, Thurtle DM, Rine J, van Oudenaarden A (2013) Highly expressed loci are vulnerable to misleading ChIP localization of multiple unrelated proteins. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 110:18602–18607
Kasinathan S, Orsi GA, Zentner GE et al (2014) High-resolution mapping of transcription factor binding sites on native chromatin. Nat Methods 11:203–209
Tseng Z, Wu T, Liu Y et al (2014) Using native chromatin immunoprecipitation to interrogate histone variant protein deposition in embryonic stem cells. Methods Mol Biol 1176:11–22
Egelhofer TA, Minoda A, Klugman S et al (2011) An assessment of histone-modification antibody quality. Nat Struct Mol Biol 18:91–93
Wal M, Pugh BF (2012) Genome-wide mapping of nucleosome positions in yeast using high-resolution MNaseChIP-Seq. Methods Enzymol 513:233–250
Adli M, Zhu J, Bernstein BE (2010) Genome-wide chromatin maps derived from limited numbers of hematopoietic progenitors. Nat Methods 7:615–618
Brind’Amour J, Liu S, Hudson M et al (2015) An ultra-low-input native ChIP-seq protocol for genome-wide profiling of rare cell populations. Nat Commun 6:6033
Jakobsen JS, Bagger FO, Hasemann MS et al (2015) Amplification of pico-scale DNA mediated by bacterial carrier DNA for small-cell-number transcription factor ChIP-seq. BMC Genomics 16:46
Gilfillan GD, Hughes T, Sheng Y et al (2012) Limitations and possibilities of low cell number ChIP-seq. BMC Genomics 13:645
Shankaranarayanan P, Mendoza-Parra MA, Walia M et al (2011) Single-tube linear DNA amplification (LinDA) for robust ChIP-seq. Nat Methods 8:565–567
Acknowledgments
The author wishes to thank members of the Barbara Wold and Richard Myers labs and of the ENCODE Consortium for many helpful discussions, and Gilberto DeSalvo and Matthew D. Smalley for critical reading of the manuscript.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2017 Springer Science+Business Media LLC
About this protocol
Cite this protocol
Marinov, G.K. (2017). ChIP-seq for the Identification of Functional Elements in the Human Genome. In: Napoli, S. (eds) Promoter Associated RNA. Methods in Molecular Biology, vol 1543. Humana Press, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-6716-2_1
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-6716-2_1
Published:
Publisher Name: Humana Press, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4939-6714-8
Online ISBN: 978-1-4939-6716-2
eBook Packages: Springer Protocols