Abstract
Howler monkeys (Alouatta) are widely regarded as the most folivorous of the neotropical monkeys and the ability of howlers to live in a wide range of environments including highly disturbed forests has been linked to this ability. Generally categorized as energy minimizing folivores leaves comprise at least half and as much as 90 % of annual feeding time. All howler species also consume fruit; however, this amount is quite variable both within and between species, and across different months of the year. Seasonality in fruit consumption in Alouatta appears to be directly tied to its availability, suggesting that for all species fruit is a preferred food item. A study of population density and diet in A. pigra following a severe hurricane suggests that frugivory may be more crucial to population stability and growth than previously thought. This chapter considers the effects of this hurricane on A. pigra in relation to what is known about frugivory in the Mesoamerican clade of Alouatta (A. palliata and A. pigra), focusing on relationships between diet, population density, group size, behavior, ranging, and reproduction. These data suggest that frugivory is an important part of the feeding ecology of these species and that periods of prolonged fruit shortage may have significant impacts on their population dynamics and survival. Given that both natural and anthropogenic habitat disturbance generally have a negative effect on fruit production, this could have important conservation implications for this primate genus.
Resumen
Los monos aulladores (Alouatta) son generalmente considerados como los más folívoros de los monos neotropicales y su habilidad para vivir en una amplia variedad de ambientes, incluyendo bosques altamente perturbados, ha sido relacionada con esta característica. Generalmente clasificados como folívoros minimizadores de energía, las hojas comprenden desdeel 50 % hasta un máximo del 90 % de su tiempo de alimentación anual. Todas las especies de aulladores consumen también fruta, pero la cantidad de ésta es variable tanto dentro de cada especie como entre diferentes especies, y a lo largo de los diferentes meses del año. La estacionalidad en el consumo de fruta en Alouatta parece estar directamente relacionada con su disponibilidad, sugiriendo que la fruta es un elemento preferido en la dieta de todas las especies. Un estudio sobre la densidad poblacional y la dieta de A. pigra tras el impacto de un fuerte huracán sugiere que la frugivoría podría ser más crucial para la estabilidad y crecimientode la población de lo que se pensaba. Este artículo considera los efectos de este huracán enA. pigra en relación a lo que se conoce sobre la frugivoría en el clado Mesoamericano de Alouatta (A. palliata y A. pigra), centrándose en las relaciones entre dieta, densidad de población, tamaño del grupo, comportamiento, campeo y reproducción. Los datos sugieren que la frugivoría es una parte importante de la ecología alimentaria de estas especies y que periodos de prolongada escasez de fruta pueden tener un impacto significativo sobre la supervivencia y las dinámicas de la población. Dado que las perturbaciones del hábitat, tanto naturales como antropogénicas, tienen un efecto negativo en la producción de fruta, esto puede tener importantes implicaciones para la conservación de este género de primates.
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Acknowledgments
We would like to thank the editors of this important volume for inviting us to participate, and the many howler researchers whose work we utilized in this chapter. We would also like to thank Neil Griffin for doing much of the legwork in locating the papers and carefully extracting the data used in the meta-analysis, and Fernando Campos and Alvaro González for doing the same with the Spanish language papers. We thank the Belize Government for granting us permission to conduct this research and the Life and Environmental Science Animal Care Committee for its annual review and approval of our research protocols. The Monkey River Research Project could not have been done without the assistance of a number of local guides and international research assistants who aided in the collection of data and monitoring of the monkey population. Funding was provided by the National Science and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC), National Geographic, the American Society of Primatologists, Conservation International, the International Primatological Society, Sigma XI, and the University of Calgary.
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Appendix: Studies from Alouatta pigra and Alouatta palliata That Were Included in our Analysis of the Effect of Frugivory on Population Density, Group Size, and AF:Immature Ratio
Appendix: Studies from Alouatta pigra and Alouatta palliata That Were Included in our Analysis of the Effect of Frugivory on Population Density, Group Size, and AF:Immature Ratio
Species | Study site | Forest size (ha) | Minimum monthly frugivory (% of diet) | Maximum monthly frugivory (% of diet) | Mean frugivory (% of diet) | Coefficient of variation for mean frugivory | Population density (individuals/ha) | Group size | AF:Immature ratio | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Alouatta pigra | Community Baboon Sanctuary, Belize | 4,700 | 10.5 | 64.5 | 41.0 | 41.7 | 2.5 | 5.9 | 0.64 | Silver et al. (1998)a |
Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary, Belize | 40,000 | ? | ? | 34 | ? | 0.11 | 6.5 | 0.70 | Silver and Marsh (2003)a | |
Monkey River, Belize | 52 | 1.65 | 41.38 | 84.6 | 72.31 | 1.01 | 6.6 | 0.88 | Pavelka and Knopff (2004) | |
Balacan tobasco, Mexico | 32 | 7.5 | 23 | 17.4 | ? | 0.06 | 9 | 1.00 | Pozo-Montuy and Serio-Silva (2006) | |
Alouatta palliata | Barro Colorado Island, Panama | 1,550 | ? | ? | 38.8 | ? | ? | ? | ? | Smith (1977) |
Hacienda La Pacifica, Costa Rica | 10 | 5 | 30 | 13 | ? | ? | 13 | 1.20 | Glander (1978) | |
Barro Colorado Island, Panama | 1,550 | 9.7 | 46.9 | 42 | ? | 1.13 | 17 | ? | Milton (1980, 1981) | |
Field Station, Mexico | 700 | 0 | 79.5 | 49.9 | 132 | 0.221 | 14 | 0.83 | Estrada (1982, 1984) | |
Santa Rosa, Costa Rica | 10,800 | ? | ? | 28.5 | ? | ? | 40 | 0.95 | Chapman (1987, 1988) | |
Santa Rosa, Costa Rica | 10,800 | ? | ? | 17 | ? | ? | 20–28 | 1.00 | Larose (1996) | |
La Selva, Costa Rica | 1,500 | 0 | 71.8 | 23.5 | 90.5 | 0.07 | 20 | 2 | Stoner (1996) | |
La Selva, Costa Rica | 1,500 | 0 | 87 | 30 | 86.7 | 0.15 | 11 | 1.25 | Stoner (1996) | |
Bala Zapote, Mexico | 3.6 | 0.3 | 71.6 | 34.8 | 74.8 | 1.94 | 7 | 0.67 | Estrada (1999) | |
Agaltepec Island, Mexico | 8.3 | ? | ? | 39.5 | ? | ? | 29 | ? | Serio Silva (1999, 2002) | |
Los Tuxlas, Mexico | 3.6 | ? | ? | 38 | ? | 1.94 | 7 | 0.67 | Solano et al. (1999) | |
Parque Yumka, Mexico | 101 | 5 | 33 | 16.2 | 87.76 | 1.22 | ? | 1.22 | Garcia del Valles (2001) | |
Agaltepec Island, Mexico | 8.3 | ? | ? | 31 | ? | 1.21 | 5 | 0.13 | Rodriguez-Luna (2003) | |
Agaltepec Island Mexico | 8.3 | ? | ? | 52.5 | ? | 6.9 | 10 | 1.05 | Rodriguez Luna (2003) | |
Finca La Luz, Nicaragua | 125 | 0 | 47.7 | 25 | 61 | ? | 25 | 0.92 | Williams-Guillen (2003) | |
Finca La Luz Nicaragua | 125 | 17.5 | 59.1 | 43 | 32 | ? | 15 | 1.14 | Williams-Guillen (2003) | |
Finca La Luz, Nicaragua | 125 | 7.9 | 63.9 | 34 | 55 | ? | 20 | 0.064 | Williams-Guillen (2003) | |
Comalcalco, Mexico | 12 | 11.9 | 64 | 35 | 50.99 | ? | 24 | 1.38 | Munoz (2006) | |
Playa Escondida, Mexico | 40 | ? | ? | 56.88 | ? | 0.48 | 7 | 0.67 | Asensio et al. (2007) | |
Agaltepec Island, Mexico | 8.3 | ? | ? | 21.35 | ? | 9.5 | 59 | 1.11 | Asensio et al. (2007) | |
Arroyo Liza, Mexico | 1.3 | ? | ? | 51.18 | ? | 4.6 | 6 | 4 | Asensio et al. (2007) | |
Los Tuxlas, Mexico | 244 | ? | ? | 49.4 | ? | 0.12 | 9 | 1 | Dunn et al. (2009) | |
Los Tuxlas, Mexico | 7.2 | ? | ? | 39.1 | ? | 1.11 | 8 | 1.5 | Dunn et al. (2009) | |
Los Tuxlas, Mexico | 244 | 7.95 | 90.58 | 50.94 | 60.41 | 0.12 | 9 | 1 | Dunn et al. (2010) | |
Los Tuxlas, Mexico | 7.2 | 2.52 | 88.05 | 44.67 | 59.96 | 1.11 | 8 | 1.5 | Dunn et al. (2010) |
aGroup composition information from Ostro et al. (1999)
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Behie, A.M., Pavelka, M.S.M. (2015). Fruit as a Key Factor in Howler Monkey Population Density: Conservation Implications. In: Kowalewski, M., Garber, P., Cortés-Ortiz, L., Urbani, B., Youlatos, D. (eds) Howler Monkeys. Developments in Primatology: Progress and Prospects. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-1960-4_13
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