Abstract
Recent advances in the care of premature infants have led to rapid increases in survival rates. This in turn has led to a growing demand for intervention at earlier and earlier stages aimed at preventing developmental dysfunction and supporting optimal development. The demand for support and intervention necessitates early assessment procedures on which to base appropriate intervention and with which to assess individual progress. This demand, as Thoman and Becker (1979) point out, reflects a profound change in the assumptions about early infancy, namely that assessment and support at this early stage of life can effect significant changes in the developmental course of the infant. This assumption is confronted at present with a remarkable lack of predictive success associated with many of the present assessment procedures (see McCall’s review, 1976; Lewis’s review, 1973). As one might expect, prediction at the extreme low end of the continuum is most reliable (Honzik, 1976); yet even with complex statistical procedures applied to comprehensive and cumulative batteries of assessments the diagnostic measures at best have been able to account for one tenth of the variance in the major outcome measures at two years, as, for instance, reported in the UCLA Infant Project (Sigman & Parmelee, 1979). Sigman and Parmelee conclude from their extensive study of preterm infants that the “nature of the outcome measurements should be broadened to include social, motivational, and personal qualities of the infant as well as more stable intellectual assessment” (p. 215), and they conclude that predictions which do not take into account the ongoing transactions between child and environment are bound to be weak, since early diagnosis is complicated by the responsiveness of the environment and the adaptability of the human infant.
This work was supported by grant #3122 from the Grant Foundation, New York, Grant #HD 10899 from NICHD, and Contract #278-78-0558 from NIMH. Parts of this work were carried out at the facilities of the Mental Retardation Research Center, Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Adamson, L., Als, H., Tronick, E., & Brazelton, T. B. A priori profiles for the Brazelton neonatal assessment. In H. Als, E. Tronick, B. M. Lester, & T. B. Brazelton, The Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 1977, 5, 3-10.
Als, H. The human newborn and his mother: An ethological study of their interaction. Doctoral dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1975.
Als, H. The newborn communicates. Journal of Communication, 1977, 27, 66–73.
Als, H. Assessing an assessment: Conceptual considerations, methodological issues, and a perspective on the future of the Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale. In A. J. Sameroff (Ed.), Organization and stability of newborn behavior: A commentary on the Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 1978, 43 (5–6), 14-29.
Als, H. Social interaction: Dynamic matrix for developing behavioral organization. In I. C. Uzgiris (Ed.), New directions for child development (Vol. 4). San Francisco: Jossey Bass, 1979, pp. 21–41.
Als, H. The unfolding of behavioral organization in the face of a biological violation. In E. Z. Tronick (Ed.), Human communication and the joint regulation of behavior. Baltimore: University Park Press, 1982.
Als, H. Infant individuality: Assessing patterns of very early development. In J. Call & E. Galenson (Eds.), Frontiers in Infant Psychiatry. New York: Basic Books, in press, (a).
Als, H. Towards a synactive theory of development: Promise for the assessment of infant individuality. Infant Mental Health Journal, in press, (b).
Als, H., & Brazelton, T. B. A new model of assessing the behavioral organization in preterm and fullterm infants. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 1981, 20, 239–263.
Als, H., Tronick, E., & Brazelton, T. B. Manual for the behavioral assessment of preterm and high risk infants: An extension of the Brazelton scale. Unpublished manuscript, Child Development Unit, Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Boston, 1975.
Als, H., Lester, B. M., & Brazelton, T. B. Manual for the assessment of preterm infants’ behavior (APIB). Unpublished manuscript, Child Development Unit, Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Boston, 1978. (Revised February 1979 and August 1979).
Als, H., Lester, B. M., & Brazelton, T. B. Dynamics of the behavioral organization of the premature infant: A theoretical perspective. In T. M. Field, A. M. Sostek, S. Goldberg, & H. H. Shuman (Eds.), Infants born at risk. New York: Spectrum, 1979, pp. 173–193.
Als, H., Tronick, E., & Brazelton, T. B. Affective reciprocity and the development of autonomy. The study of a blind infant. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 1980, 79, 22–40.
Arend, R., Gove, F. L., & Sroufe, L. A. Continuity of individual adaptation from infancy to kindergarten: A predictive study of ego-resiliency and curiosity in preschoolers. Child Development, 1979, 50, 950–959.
Ayres, A. J. Sensory integration and learning disorders. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services, 1973.
Block, J., & Block, J. H. The developmental continuity of ego control and ego resiliency: Some accomplishments and some problems. Paper presented at the meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, New Orleans, March 1977.
Blurton Jones, N. Characteristics of ethological studies of human behavior. In N. Blurton Jones (Ed.), Ethological studies of child behavior. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972, pp. 3–37.
Blurton Jones, N. Ethology and early socialization. In M. P. M. Richards (Ed.), The integration of a child into a social world. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974, pp. 263–295.
Blurton Jones, N. Growing points in human ethology: Another link between ethology and the social sciences? In G. Bateson & R. A. Hinde (Eds.), Growing points in ethology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976, pp. 427–451.
Bobath, B. The very early treatment of cerebral palsy. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 1967, 9, 373–390.
Bobath, B. Abnormal postural reflex activity caused by brain lesions. London: William Heinemann, 1971.
Bobath, K. The normal postural reflex mechanism and its deviation in children with cerebral palsy. Physiotherapy, 1971, 57, 1–11.
Bobath, K., & Bobath, B. The diagnosis of cerebral palsy in infancy. Archives of Diseases of Children, 1956,31,408–414.
Brazelton, T. B. The Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale. Clinics in Developmental Medicine, No. 50. London: William Heinemann, 1973.
Brazelton, T. B., & Als, H. Four early stages in the development of mother-infant interaction. The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 1979, 34, 349–369.
Bruner, J. S. On knowing: Essays for the left hand. New York: Atheneum, 1965.
Bruner, J. S. Processes of cognitive growth: Infancy. Worcester, Mass.: Clark University Press, 1968.
Bunge, R., Johnson, M., & Ross, C. D. Nature and nurture in development of the autonomic neuron. Science, 1978, 199, 1409–1416.
Campbell, S. K., & Wilhelm, I. J. Developmental sequences in infants at high risk for central nervous system dysfunction: The recovery process in the first year of life. In J. M. Stack (Ed.), An interdisciplinary approach to the optimal development of infants: The special child. New York: Human Sciences Press, in press.
Coghill, G. E. Anatomy and the problem of behavior. New York: Macmillan, 1929.
Connolly, K., & Bruner, J. (Eds.). The growth of competence. New York: Academic Press, 1974.
Dabrowski, K., & Piechowski, M. M. Theory of levels of emotional development: Multilevelness and positive disintegration (Vol. 1). Oceanside, N.Y.: Dabor Science Publications, 1977.
Dawkins, R. Hierarchical organization. In P. P. G. Bateson & R. A. Hinde (Eds.), Growing points in ethology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976, pp. 10–54.
Denny-Brown, D. The basal ganglia and their relation to disorders of movement. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1962.
Denny-Brown, D. The cerebral control of movement. Springfield, Ill.: Charles C Thomas, 1966.
Dreyfus-Brisac, C. Organization of sleep in prematures: Implications for caretaking. In M. Lewis & L. A. Rosenblum (Eds.), The effect of the infant on its caregiver. New York: Wiley, 1974, pp. 123–141.
Duffy, F. H., & Burchfiel, J. Somato-sensory systems: Organizational hierarchy from single units in monkey area 5. Science, 1971, 172, 273–275.
Duffy, F. H., Mower, G. D., & Burchfiel, J. L. Experimental amblyopia—Production by random monocular shifts of visual input. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts, 1978, 4, 625.
Erikson, E. H. Reality and actuality. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 1962, 10, 451–475.
Fowler, W., & Swenson, A. The influence of early language stimulation on development: Four studies. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 1979, 100, pp. 73–109.
Freedman, D. G. Smiling in blind infants and the issue of innate versus acquired. Journal of Psychology and Psychiatry, 1964, 5, 171–184.
Freedman, D. G. Human infancy: An evolutionary perspective. New York: Wiley, 1974.
Freedman, D. G. Human sociobiology: A holistic approach. New York: Macmillan, 1979.
Fujiwara, T., Chida, S., Watabe, Y., Maeta, H., Morita, T., & Abe, T. Artificial surfactant therapy in hyaline membrane disease. Lancet, 1980, 1, 55–59.
Gesell, A. The ontogenesis of infant behavior. In L. Carmichael (Ed.), Manual of Child Psychology. New York: Wiley, 1946, pp. 295–331.
Gesell, A., & Armatruda, C. The embryology of behavior. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1945.
Gorski, P. A., Davison, M. F., & Brazelton, T. B. Stages of behavioral organization in the high-risk neonate: Theoretical and clinical considerations. Seminars in Perinatology, 1979, 3, 61–72.
Grossman, K. Die Wirkung des Augenöffnens von Neugeborenen auf das Verhalten ihrer Mütter. Geburtshilfe und Frauenheilkunde, 1978, 38, 629–635.
Harmon, R. J. Play, mastery and attachment in term and preterm infants. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, Atlanta, 1979 (University of Colorado Medical Center, Dept. of Psychiatry, Denver, Colo. 80262).
Hassenstein, B. Verhaltungsbiologie des Kindes. Munich: Piper Verlag, 1973.
Herzog, J. M. Attachment, attunement and abuse: An occurence in certain premature infant-parent dyads and triads. Paper presented at the meetings of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, Atlanta, 1979.
Hinde, R. A. Animal behavior (2nd ed.). London and New York: McGraw-Hill, 1970.
Hinde, R. A., & Spencer-Booth, Y. The behavior of socially living rhesus monkeys in their first two and a half years. Animal Behavior, 1967, 15, 169–196.
Holloway, R. Culture, the human dimension. Current Anthropologist, 1969, 10, 395–412.
Honzik, M. P. Value and limitations of infant tests: An overview. In M. Lewis (Ed.), Origins of intelligence: Infancy and early childhood. New York: Plenum Press, 1976, pp. 59–95.
Hooker, D. Early fetal activity in mammals. Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine, 1936, 8(6), 579–602.
Hooker, D. Fetal reflexes and instinctual processes. Psychosomatic Medicine, 1942, 4 (2), 199-205.
Horton, F. H., Lubchenco, L. O., & Gordon, H. H. Self-regulatory feeding in a premature nursery. Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine, 1952, 24, 263–272.
Humphrey, T. The development of mouth opening and related reflexes involving the oral area of human features. Alabama Journal of Medical Sciences, 1968, 5, 126–157.
Humphrey, T. Reflex activity in the oral and facial area of the human fetus. In J. F. Bosma (Ed.), Oral sensation and perception. Springfield, Ill.: Charles C Thomas, 1970, pp. 195–233.
Hunt, J. McV. Intelligence and experience. New York: Ronald Press, 1961.
Hunt, J. McV. Motivation inherent in information processing and action. In O. J. Harvey (Ed.), Motivation and social interaction: The cognitive determinants. New York: Ronald Press, 1963, pp. 35–94.
Jennings, K. D., Harmon, R. J., Morgan, G. A., Gaiter, J. L., & Yarrow, L. J. Exploratory play as an index of mastery motivation: Relationships to persistence, cognitive functioning and environmental measures. Developmental Psychology, 1979, 15, 386–394.
Korner, A. F. Maternal rhythms and waterbeds: A form of intervention with premature infants. In E. B. Thomas (Ed.), Origins of the infant’s social responsiveness. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1979, pp. 95–125.
Korner, A. F., & Grobstein, R. Visual alertness as related to soothing in neonates: Implications for maternal stimulation and early deprivation. Child Development, 1966, 37, 867–876.
Korner, A. F., & Thoman, E. B. The relative efficacy of contact and vestibular stimulation in soothing neonates. Child Development, 1972, 43, 443–453.
Korner, A. F., Kraemer, H. C, Haffner, M. E., & Cosper, L. Effects of waterbed flotation on premature infants: A pilot study. Pediatrics, 1975, 56, 361–367.
Landis, S. C. Developmental changes in the neurotransmitter properties of dissociated sympathetic neurons: A cytochemical study of the effects of medium. Developmental Biology, 1980, 77, 349–361.
Lester, B. M., Als, H., & Brazelton, T. B. Scoring criteria for seven clusters of the Brazelton Scale. In Regional obstetric anesthesia and newborn behavior: A reanalysis toward synergistic effects. Child Development, 1982.
Lettvin, J. Y., Maturana, H., McCulloch, W., & Pitts, W. What the frog’s eye tells the frog’s brain. Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers, 1959, 47, 1940–1951.
Lewis, M. Infant intelligence tests: Their use and misuse. Human Development, 1973, 16, 108–118.
Liggins, G. C., & Howie, R. N. The prevention of RDS by maternal steroid therapy. In L. Gluck (Ed.), Modern perinatal medicine. Chicago: Yearbook Medical Publishers, 1974, pp. 415–424.
Masi, W. Supplemental stimulation of the premature infant. In T. M. Field, A. M. Sostek, S. Goldberg, & H. H. Shuman (Eds.), Infants born at risk. New York: Spectrum, 1979, pp. 367–389.
McCall, R. B. Toward an epigenetic conception of mental development in the first three years of life. In M. Lewis (Ed.), Origins of intelligence: Infancy and early childhood. New York: Plenum Press, 1976, pp. 97–122.
McGraw, M. B. The neuromuscular maturation of the human infant. New York: Hafner, 1945.
Milani-Comparetti, A., & Gidoni, E. A. Pattern analysis of motor development and its disorders. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 1967, 9, 625–630.
Minde, K. K., Morton, P., Manning, D., & Hines, B. Some determinants of mother-infant interaction in the premature nursery. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 1980, 19, 1–21.
Morgan, G. A., Harmon, R. J., Gaiter, J. L., Jennings, K. D., Gist, N. F., & Yarrow, L. J. A method of assessing mastery in one-year-old infants. J. S. A. S. Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology, 1977, 7, 68 (Ms. #1517).
Nystrom, M. Neonatal facial-postural patterning during sleep: II. Activity and states. Psychological Research Bulletin, Lund University, Sweden, 1975, 15, 1–11.
Nystrom, M. Neonatal facial-postural patterning during sleep: V. Ethological models and temporal organization. Psychological Research Bulletin, Lund University, Sweden, 1977, 17, 1–10.
Nystrom, M., Bandmann, Y., & Valentin, A. Neonatal facial-postural patterning during sleep. Psychological Research Bulletin, Lund University, Sweden, 1977, 17, 1–10.
Palay, S. L. Introduction to the nervous system: Basic neuroanatomy. Lecture delivered at Harvard Medical School, 1979.
Patterson, P. H. Epigenetic influences in neuronal development. In S. O. Schmitt & F. G. Worden (Eds.), Neuro Sciences Fourth Study Program. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1979, pp. 929–936.
Patterson, P. H., Potter, D. D., & Furshpan, E. J. The chemical differentiation of the nerve cells. Scientific American, 1978, 239, 50–59.
Piaget, J. The origins of intelligence in children. New York: Norton, 1963.
Prechtl, H. F. R., Fargel, J. W., Weinmann, H. M., & Bakker, H. H. P. Postures, motility and respiration of low risk, preterm infants. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 1979, 21, 3–27.
Robson, K. The role of eye-to-eye contact in maternal-infant attachment. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 1967, 8, 13–25.
Rosenblatt, J. S. Stages in the early behavioral development of altricial young of selected species of non-primate mammals. In P. P. G. Bateson & R. A. Hinde (Eds.), Growing points in ethology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976, pp. 345–385.
St. Clair, K. L. Neonatal assessment procedures: A historical review. Child Development, 1978, 49, 280–292.
Sander, L. W. Issues in early mother-child interaction. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 1962, 1, 141–166.
Sander, L. W. Adaptive relationships in early mother-child interaction. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 1964, 3, 232–264.
Sander, L. W. Regulation and organization in the early infant-caretaker system. In R. Robinson (Ed.), Brain and early behavior. London: Academic Press, 1970, pp. 311–333.
Sander, L. W. Infant and caretaking environment: Investigation and conceptualization of adaptive behavior in a system of increasing complexity. In E. J. Anthony (Ed.), Explorations in child psychiatry. New York: Plenum Press, 1975, pp. 129–166.
Sander, L. W. Primary prevention and some aspects of temporal organization in early infant-caretaker interaction. In E. Rexford, L. W. Sander, & T. Shapiro (Eds.), Infant psychiatry: A new synthesis. New Haven: Yale, 1976, pp. 187–204.
Sander, L. W. Investigation of the infant and its environment as a biological system. In S. I. Greenspan & G. H. Pollock (Eds.), The course of life: Psychoanalytic contribution toward understanding personality development. Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Mental Health, 1980, pp. 177–201.
Sander, L. W., Stechler, G., Burns, P., & Julia, H. Early mother-infant interaction and 24-hour patterns of activity and sleep. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 1970, 9, 103–123.
Sander, L. W., Julia, H. L., Stechler, G., & Burns, P. Continuous 24-hour interactional monitoring in infants reared in two caretaking environments. Psychosomatic Medicine, 1972, 34, 270–282.
Sander, L. W., Stechler, G., Burns, P., and Lee, A. Change in infant and caregiver variables over the first two months of life: Integration of action in early development. In E. B. Thomas (Ed.), Origins of the infant’s social responsiveness. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1979, pp. 349–409.
Schneiria, T. C. An evolutionary and developmental theory of biphasic processes underlying approach and withdrawal. In M. R. Jones (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1959, pp. 1–42.
Schneirla, T. C. Aspects of stimulation and organization in approach/withdrawal processes underlying vertebrate behavioral development. Advances in the Study of behavior, 1965, 1, 1–74.
Schneirla, T. C, & Rosenblatt, J. S. Behavioral organization and genesis of the social bond in insects and mammals. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 1961, 31, 223–253.
Schneirla, T. C, & Rosenblatt, J. S. “Critical periods” in the development of behavior. Science, 1963, 139, 1110–1115.
Sherrington, C. S. Man on his nature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1940.
Sigman, M., & Parmelee, A. H. Longitudinal evaluation of the preterm infant. In T. M. Field, A. M. Sostek, S. Goldberg, & H. H. Shuman (Eds.), Infants born at risk. New York: Spectrum, 1979, pp. 193–219.
Spinelli, D. N., & Jensen, E. E. Plasticity: The mirror of experience. Science, 1979, 203, 75–78.
Sroufe, L. A. The coherence of individual development. American Psychologist, 1979, 34, 834–841.
Sterman, M. B. Relationship of intrauterine fetal activity to maternal sleep stage. Experimental Neurology, 1967, Supplement 4, 98–106.
Taeusch, H. W., Keitner, M., & Avery, M. E. Accelerated lung maturation and increased survival in premature rabbits treated with hydrocortisone. American Review of Respiratory Disease, 1972, 105, 971–973.
Taeusch, H. W., Jr., Wang, N. S., Baden, M., Bauer, C. R., & Stern, L. A controlled trial of hydrocortisone therapy in infants with respiratory distress syndrome: II. Pathology. Pediatrics, 1973, 52, 850–854.
Thoman, E. G., & Becker, P. T. Issues in assessment and prediction for the infant born at risk. In T. M. Field, A. M. Sostek, S. Goldberg, & H. H. Shuman (Eds.), Infants born at risk. New York: Spectrum, 1979, pp. 461–485.
Twitchell, T. E. The neurological examination in infantile cerebral palsy. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 1963, 5, 271–278.
Twitchell, T. E. Normal motor development. Physical Therapy, 1965, 45, 419–423. (a)
Twitchell, T. E. Attitudinal reflexes. Physical Therapy, 1965, 45, 411–418. (b)
Twitchell, T. E. Variations and abnormalities of motor development. Physical Therapy, 1965, 45, 424–430. (c)
Twitchell, T. E., & Ehrenreich, D. L. The plantar response in infantile cerebral palsy. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 1962, 4, 602–611.
Vygotsky, L. S. Mind in society. M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman (Eds.). Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard, 1978.
Werner, H. Comparative psychology of mental development. New York: International Universities Press, 1948.
Werner, H. The concept of development from a comparative and organismic point of view. In D. B. Harris (Ed.), The concept of development. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1957, pp. 125–148.
Winter, P., & Funkenstein, H. H. The effect of species-specific vocalization on the discharge of auditory cortical cells in the awake squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus). Experimental Brain Research, 1973, 18, 489–504.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1982 Springer Science+Business Media New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Als, H., Lester, B.M., Tronick, E.Z., Brazelton, T.B. (1982). Toward a Research Instrument for the Assessment of Preterm Infants’ Behavior (APIB). In: Fitzgerald, H.E., Lester, B.M., Yogman, M.W. (eds) Theory and Research in Behavioral Pediatrics. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0442-3_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0442-3_2
Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA
Print ISBN: 978-1-4899-0444-7
Online ISBN: 978-1-4899-0442-3
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive