Skip to main content

Adaptations for Aquatic Living by Carnivores

  • Chapter
Carnivore Behavior, Ecology, and Evolution

Abstract

Before considering the carnivores’ adaptations for aquatic living, one must define what is meant by an “adaptation” as well as identify those species that are aquatic. Neither task is simple.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 99.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 129.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Alcock, J. 1972. The evolution of the use of tools by feeding animals. Evolution 26:464–473.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arden-Clarke, C. H. G. 1986. Population density, home range size and spatial organization of the Cape clawless otter, Aonyx capensis, in a marine habitat. J. Zool. (Lond.) 209:201–211.

    Google Scholar 

  • Autuori, M. P., and Deutsch, L. A. 1977. Contribution to the knowledge of the Brazilian otter, Pteronura brasiliensis (Gmelin, 1788), Carnivora, Mustelidae: Rearing in captivity. Zool. Garten 47:1–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barabash-Nikiforov, I. I. 1947. Kalan (The sea otter). Soviet Ministry RSFSR. Trans. from Russian by Israel Program for Scientific Translation. Jerusalem, Israel, 1962.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartholomew, G. A. 1970. A model for the evolution of pinniped polygyny. Evolution 24:546–559.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ben Shaul, D. M. 1962. The composition of milk of wild animals. Internat. Zoo Yearb. 4:333–342.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berta, A., and Morgan, G. S. 1986. A new sea otter (Carnivora: Mustelidae) from the late Miocene and early Pliocene (Hemphilian) of North America. J. Paleontol. 59:809–819.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bonner, W. N. 1984. Lactation strategies in pinnipeds: Problems for a marine mammalian group. In: M. Peaker, R. G. Vernon & C. H. Knight, eds. Physiological Strategies in Lactation, Symposia of the Zoological Society of London no. 51, pp. 253–270. London: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowen, W. D., Oftedal, O. T., and Boness, D. J. 1985. Birth to weaning in 4 days: Remarkable growth in the hooded seal. Canadian J. Zool. 63:2841–2846.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brody, S. 1945. Bioenergetics and Growth. London: Hafner Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, J. C. and Lasiewski, R. C. 1972. Metabolism of weasels: The cost of being long and thin. Ecology 53:939–943.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burton, R. 1979. Carnivores of Europe. London: Batsford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cabello, C. C. 1983. La nutria de mar en la Isla de Chiloe. Corporacion National Forestal. Boletin Tecnico 6:1–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Calkins, D. G., and Lent, P. C. 1975. Territoriality and mating behavior in Prince William Sound sea otters. J. Mamm. 56:528–529.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carr, G. M., and MacDonald, D. W. 1986. The sociality of solitary foragers: A model based on resource dispersion. Anim. Behav. 34:1540–1549.

    Google Scholar 

  • Castilla, J. C. and Bahamondes, I. 1979. Observaciones conductales y ecológicas sobre Lutra felina (Molina) 1782 (Carnivora: Mustelidae) en las zonas Central y Centro-Norte de Chile. Archivos de Biologia y Medicina Experimentales 12:119–132.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chanin, P. 1985. The Natural History of Otters. New York: Facts on File.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clutton-Brock, T. H. 1983. Selection in relation to sex. In: D. S. Bendall, ed. Evolution from Molecules to Men, pp. 457–481. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conroy, J. W. H., and Jenkins, D. 1986. Ecology of otters in northern Scotland. VI. Diving times and hunting success of otters (Lutra lutra) at Dinnet Lochs, Aberdeenshire and in Yell Sound, Shetland. J. Zool. (Lond.) 209:341–346.

    Google Scholar 

  • Costa, D. P. 1982. Energy, nitrogen and electrolyte flux and seawater drinking in the sea otter Enhydra lutris. Physiol. Zool. 55:35–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Costa, D. P., and Kooyman, G. L. 1982. Oxygen consumption, thermoregulation, and the effect of für oiling and washing on the sea otter, Enhydra lutris. Canadian J. Zool. 60:2761–2767.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, J. A. 1978. A classification of otters. In: N. Duplaix, ed. Otters: Proceedings of the First Meeting of the Otter Specialists Group, pp. 14–33. Morges, Switzerland: International Union for the Conservation of Nature.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, J. A. 1981. Breeding the spot-necked otter (Abstract.) Distributed at Second International Otter Colloquium, Norwich, England, September 1981.

    Google Scholar 

  • Depocas, F., Hart, J. S., and Fisher, H. D. 1971. Sea water drinking and water flux in starved and fed harbor seals, Phoca vitulina. Canadian]. Physiol. Pharmacol. 49:53–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • Desai, J. H. 1974. Observations on the breeding habits of the Indian smooth otter Lutrogale perspicillata in captivity. Internat. Zoo Yearb. 14:123–124.

    Google Scholar 

  • Donnelly, B. G., and Crobler, J. H. 1976. Notes on food and anvil using behaviour by the Cape clawless otter, Aonyx capensis in the Rhodes Matopos National Park, Rhodesia. Arnoldia 7:1–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunstone, N. 1979. The fishing strategy of the mink (Mustela vison): Time-budgeting of hunting effort? Behaviour 67:157–177.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunstone, N., and O’Connor, R. J. 1979. Optimal foraging in an amphibious mammal. I. The aqualung effect. Anim. Behav. 27:1182–1194.

    Google Scholar 

  • Duplaix, N. 1980. Observations on the ecology and behavior of the giant river otter Pteronura brasiliensis in Surinam. Revue d’écologie: La terre et la vie 34:495–620.

    Google Scholar 

  • Duplaix-Hall, N. 1975. River otters in captivity: A review. In: R. D. Martin, ed. Breeding Endangered Species in Captivity, pp. 315–327. London: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, J. F. 1981. The Mammalian Radiations. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Emlen, S. T., and Oring, L. W. 1977. Ecology, sexual selection and the evolution of mating systems. Science 197:215–223.

    Google Scholar 

  • Erlinge, S. 1967a. Food habits of the fish-otter Lutra lutra L. in South Swedish habitats. Viltrevy 4:371–443.

    Google Scholar 

  • Erlinge, S. 1967b. Home range of the otter Lutra lutra L. in southern Sweden. Oikos 18:186–209.

    Google Scholar 

  • Erlinge, S. 1968a. Food studies on captive otters (Lutra lutra L.). Oikos 19:259–270.

    Google Scholar 

  • Erlinge, S. 1968b. Territoriality of the otter Lutra lutra L. Oikos 19:81–98.

    Google Scholar 

  • Estes, J. A. 1977. Population estimates and feeding behavior of sea otters. In: M. C. Merritt & R. G. Fuller, eds. The Environment of Amchitka Island, Alaska, pp. 511–526. Springfield, Va.: National Technical Information Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • Estes, J. A. 1979. Exploitation of marine mammals: R-selection of k-strategists? J. Fish. Res. Board Canada 36:1009–1117.

    Google Scholar 

  • Estes, J. A. 1980. Enhydra lutris. Mammalian Speices no. 133. Lawrence, Kan.: American Society of Mammalogists.

    Google Scholar 

  • Estes, J. A. 1981. Notes on feeding behavior. Unpubl. data. Available from J. A. Estes, Institute of Marine Sciences, UCSC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Estes, J. A., and Jameson, R. J. 1988. A double-survey estimate for sighting probability of sea otters in California. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 52:70–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Estes, J. A., Jameson, R. J., and Johnson, A. M. 1981. Food selection and some foraging tactics of sea otters. In: J. A. Chapman & D. Pursley, eds. Proceedings of the Worldwide Furbearers Conference, pp. 606–641. Frostburg, Md.: Worldwide Furbearers Conference, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Estes, J. A., Jameson, R. J., and Rhode, E. B. 1982. Activity and prey selection in the sea otter: Influence of population status on community structure. Amer. Nat. 120:242–258.

    Google Scholar 

  • Estes, J. A., Underwood, K. E., and Karmann, M. J. 1986. Activity-time budgets of sea otters in California. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 50:626–637.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ewer, R. F. 1973. The Carnivores. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Univ. Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferren, H., and Eisner, R. 1979. Diving physiology of the ringed seal: Adaptations and implications. Proc. Alaska Sci. Conf. 29:379–387.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frisch, J., Oritsland, N. A., and Krog, J. 1974. Insulation of furs in water. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 47A:403–410.

    Google Scholar 

  • Furuya, Y. 1976. Otters in Padas Bay, Sabah, Malaysia. J. Mamm. Soc. Japan 7:34–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garshelis, D. L. 1983. Ecology of sea otters in Prince William Sound, Alaska. Ph.D. dissert., Univ. Minnesota, Minneapolis. 321 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garshelis, D. L., Garshelis, J. A., and Kimker, A. T. 1986. Sea otter time budgets and prey relationships in Alaska. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 50:637–647.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garshelis, D. L., Johnson, A. M., and Garshelis, J. A. 1984. Social organization of sea otters in Prince William Sound, Alaska. Canadian J. Zool. 62:2648–2658.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gentry, R. 1981. Seawater drinking in eared seals. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 68A:81–86.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gentry, R. L., Kooyman, G. L., and Goebel, M. E. 1986. Feeding and diving behavior of northern für seals. In: R. L. Gentry & G. L. Kooyman, eds. Fur Seals: Maternal Strategies on Land and at Sea, pp. 61–78. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univ. Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gentry, R. L., and Peterson, R. S. 1967. Underwater vision of the sea otter. Nature 216:435–436.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gittleman, J. L. 1985. Carnivore body size: Ecological and taxonomic correlates. Oecologia 67:540–554.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gittleman, J. L. 1986a. Carnivore brain size, behavioral ecology, and phylogeny. J. Mamm. 67:23–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gittleman, J. L. 1986b. Carnivore life history patterns: Allometric, ecological and phylogenetic associations. Amer. Nat. 127:744–771.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gittleman, J. L., and Oftedal, O. T. 1987. Comparative growth and lactation energetics in carnivores. In: A. S. I. Loudon & P. Racey, eds. Reproductive Energetics in Mammals, pp. 41-77. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gorman, M. L., Jenkins, D., and Harper, R. J. 1978. The anal scent sacs of the otter (Lutra lutra). J. Zool. (Lond.) 186:463–474.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gould, S. J. 1977. Ontogeny and Phylogeny. Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gould, S. J., and Lewontin, R. L. 1979. The spandrels of San Marcos and the Panglossian paradigm: A critique of the adaptationist programme. Proc. Royal Soc. London ser. B. 205:581–598.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gould, S. J., and Vrba, E. 1982. Exaptation—a missing term in the science of form. Paleobiology 8:4–15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Green, J. 1977. Sensory perception in hunting otters. Lutra lutra L. J. Otter Trust 1977:13–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Green, J., Green, R., and Jeffries, D. J. 1984. A radio-tracking survey of otters Lutra lutra on a Perthshire river system. Lutra 27:85–145.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gross, M. E., Coleman, R. M., and McDowall, R. M. 1988. Aquatic productivity and the evolution of diadromous fish migration. Science 239:1291–1293.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guilday, J. E. 1949. Winter foods of Pennsylvania mink. Penn. Game News 20:32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall, K. R. L., and Schaller, G. B. 1964. Tool-using behavior of the California sea otter. J. Mamm. 45:287–298.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton, W. J. 1959. Foods of mink in New York. New York Fish Game J. 1959:77–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton, W. J., and Eadie, W. R. 1964. Reproduction in the otter. Lutra canadensis. J. Mamm. 45:242–252.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris, C. J. 1968. Otters: A Study of the Recent Lutrinae. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, R. J. 1974. Functional Anatomy of Marine Mammals, vol. 2. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, R. J., Hubbard, R. C. Peterson, R. S., Rice, C. E., and Shusterman, R. J., eds. 1968. The Behavior and Physiology of Pinnipeds. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, R. J., and Kooyman, G. L. 1981. Diving in Marine Mammals. Carolina Biology Readers. Burlington, N.C.: Carolina Biology Supply.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, R. J., and Tomlinson, J. D. W. 1956. Observations on the venous system in certain pinnipedia and cetacea. Proc. Zool. Soc. London 126:205–233.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, R. J., and Tomlinson, J. D. W. 1963. Anatomical and physiological adaptations in diving mammals. In: J. D. Carthy & C. L. Duddington, eds. Viewpoints in Biology, pp. 115–162. London: Butterworths.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hewson, R. 1973. Food and feeding habits of otters Lutra Intra at Loch Park, northeast Scotland. J. Zool (Lond.) 170:143–162.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hillegaart, V., Ostman, J., and Sandegren, F. 1981. Area utilization and marking behaviour among two captive otter (Lutra lutra L.) pairs. (Abstract.) Distributed at Second International Otter Colloquium, Norwich, England. September 1981.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hofman, M. A. 1983. Energy metabolism, brain size and longevity in mammals. Quart. Rev. Biol. 58:496–512.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hornocker, M. G., Messick, J. P., and Melquist, W. E. 1983. Spatial strategies in three species of Mustelidae. Acta Zoologica Fennica 174:185–188.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howell, A. B. 1930. Aquatic Mammals: Their Adaptations to Life in the Water. Springfield, Ill.: Charles C Thomas.

    Google Scholar 

  • Irving, L., and Hart, J. S. 1957. The metabolism and insulation of seals as bare-skinned mammals in cold water. Canadian J. Zool. 35:497–511.

    Google Scholar 

  • Iversen, J. A. 1972. Basal energy metabolism of mustelids. J. Comp. Physiol. 81:341–344.

    Google Scholar 

  • Iversen, J. A., and Krog, J. 1973. Heat production and body surface area in seals and sea otters. Norwegian J. Zool. 21:51–54.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jameson, R. J. 1983. Evidence of birth of a sea otter on land in central California. California Fish Game 69:122–123.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jameson, R. J. 1987. Movements, home range, and territories of male sea otters in central California. Unpubl. ms. Available from R. J. Jameson, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, San Simeon, Calif.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jameson, R. J., and Bodkin, J. L. 1986. An incidence of twinning in the sea otter (Enhydra lutris). Marine Mammal Science 2:305–309.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jameson, R. J., and Estes, J. A. 1988. Unpublished data available from R. J. Jameson, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, San Simeon, Calif.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jameson, R. J., and Johnson, A. M. 1988. Sea otter reproduction. Unpublished ms. Available from R. J. Jameson, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, San Simeon, Calif.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jamieson, G. S., and Fisher, H. D. 1972. The pinniped eye: A review. In R. J. Harrison, ed. Functional Anatomy of Marine Mammals, pp. 245–261. London: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jarman, P. 1983. Mating system and sexual dimorphism in large, terrestrial, mammalian herbivores. Biol. Rev. 58:485–520.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jenkins, D. 1980. Ecology of otters in northern Scotland. 1. Otter (Lutra lutra) breeding and dispersion in mid-Deeside, Aberdeenshire in 1974-79. J. Anim. Ecol. 49:713–735.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jenkins, D., and Burrows, G. O. 1980. Ecology of otters in northern Scotland. III. The use of faeces as indicators of otter (Lutra lutra) density and distribution. J. Anim. Ecol. 49:755–774.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jenness, R., and Sloan, R. E. 1970. The composition of milks of various species: A review. Dairy Sci. Abstr. 32:599–612.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jenness, R., Williams, T. D., and Mullin, R. J. 1981. Composition of milk of the sea otter (Enhydra lutris). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 70A:375–379.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaufman, J. H. 1983. On the definitions and functions of dominance and territoriality. Biol. Rev. 58:1–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kenyon, K. W. 1969. The Sea Otter in the Eastern Pacific Ocean. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, North American Fauna, no. 69. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • King, C. M. 1984. The origin and adaptive advantages of delayed implantation in Mustela erminea. Oikos 42:126–128.

    Google Scholar 

  • King, J. E. 1983. Seals of the World Ithaca, N.Y.: Comstock Publishing Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kleiber, M. 1975. The Fire of Life: An Introduction to Animal Energetics. Huntington, N.Y.: R. E. Kreiger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kleiman, D. G. 1977. Monogamy in mammals. Quart. Rev. Biol. 52:39–68.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kleiman, D. G., and Eisenberg, J. F. 1973. Comparisons of canid and felid social systems from an evolutionary perspective. Anim. Behav. 21:637–659.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kooyman, G. L. 1973. Respiratory adaptations in marine mammals. Amer. Zool. 13:457–468.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kooyman, G. L. 1981. Weddell seal: Consummate diver. London: Cambridge Univ. Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kooyman, G. L., Castellini, M. A., and Davis, R. W. 1981. Physiology of diving in marine mammals. Ann. Rev. Physiol. 43:343–356.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kooyman, G. L., Davis, R. W., and Croxall, J. P. 1986. Diving behavior of Antarctic für seals. In: R. L. Gentry & G. L. Kooyman, eds. Fur Seals: Maternal Strategies on Land and at Sea, pp. 115–125. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univ. Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kooyman, G. L., and Gentry, R. L. 1986. Diving behavior of South African für seals. In: R. L. Gentry & G. L. Kooyman, eds. Fur Seals: Maternal Strategies on Land and at Sea, pp. 142–152. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univ. Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kooyman, G. L., and Trillmich, F. 1986a. Diving behavior of Galapagos für seals. In: R. L. Gentry & G. L. Kooyman, eds. Fur Seals: Maternal Strategies on Land and at Sea, pp. 186–195. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univ. Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kooyman, G. L., and Trillmich, F. 1986b. Diving behavior of Galapagos sea lions. In: R. L. Gentry & G. L. Kooyman, eds. Fur Seals: Maternal Strategies on Land and at Sea, pp. 209–219. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univ. Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kooyman, G. L., Wahrenbrock, E. A., Castellini, M. A., Davis, R. W., and Sinnett, E. E. 1980. Aerobic and anaerobic metabolism during voluntary diving in Weddell seals: Evidence of preferred pathways from blood chemistry and behavior. J. Comp. Physiol. 138:325–346.

    Google Scholar 

  • Korschgen, L. J. 1958. December food habits of mink in Missouri. J. Mamm. 39:521–527.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kruuk, H. 1978. Spatial organization and territorial behaviour of the European badger Meles meles. J. Zool. (Lond.) 184:1–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kruuk, H., and Hewson, R. 1978. Spacing and foraging of otters (Lutra lutra) in a marine habitat. J. Zool. (Lond.) 185:205–212.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laidler, K., and Laidler, E. 1983. The River Wolf. London: George Allen and Unwin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lavigne, D. M., Bernholz, C. D., and Ronald, K. 1975. Functional aspects of the marine mammal retina. In: R. J. Harrison, ed. Functional Anatomy of Marine Mammals, vol. 3. London: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lavigne, D. M., Innes, S., Worthy, G. A. J., Kovacs, K. M., Schmitz, O. J., and Hickie, J. P. 1986. Metabolic rates of seals and whales. Canadian J. Zool. 64:279–284.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laws, R. M. 1953. The elephant seal (Mirounga leonina Linn.). I. Growth and age. Falkland Islands Dependencies Surveys, Scientific Reports no. 8. N.p., n.p.

    Google Scholar 

  • Le Boeuf, B. J., Costa, D. P., Huntley, A. C, and Feldcamp, S. D. 1988. Continuous, deep diving in female northern elephant seals, Mirounga angustirostris. Canadian J. Zool. In press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Le Boeuf, B. J., Costa, D. P., Huntley, A. C. Kooyman, G. L., and Davis, R. W. 1986. Pattern and depth of dives in Northern elephant seals, Mirounga angustirostris. J. Zool. (Lond.) 208:1–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lenfant, C. Johansen, K., and Torrence, J. D. 1970. Gas transport and oxygen storage capacity in some pinnipeds and the sea otter. Respiration Physiol. 9:277–286.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leslie, G. 1970. Observations on the Oriental short-clawed otter, Aonyx cinerea, at Aberdeen Zoo. Internat. Zoo Yearb. 10:79–81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liers, E. E. 1951 Notes on the river otter (Lutra canadensis). J. Mamm. 32:1–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ling, J. K. 1970. Pelage and molting in wild mammals with special reference to aquatic forms. Quart. Rev. Biol. 45:16–54.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ling, J. K., and Bryden, M. M. 1981. Southern elephant seal. In: S. H. Ridgeway & R. J. Harrison, eds. Handbook of Marine Mammals, 2:297–327. London: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loughlin, T. R. 1977. Activity patterns, habitat partitioning, and grooming behavior of the sea otter, Enhydra lutris, in California. Ph.D. dissert., Univ. California, Los Angeles. 110 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loughlin, T. R. 1980. Home range and territoriality of sea otters near Monterey, California. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 44:576–582.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lythgoe, J. N. 1972. The adaptation of visual pigments to the photic environment. In: H. J. A. Dartnall, ed. The Handbook of Sensory Physiology, VII. I. The Photochemistry of Vision. Hamburg: Springer-Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lythgoe, J. N., and Dartnall, H. J. A. 1970. A “deep sea rhodopsin” in a marine mammal. Nature 227:995–996.

    Google Scholar 

  • McFarland, W. N. 1971. Cetacean visual pigments. Vision Research 11:1065–1076.

    Google Scholar 

  • McLaren, I. A. 1958. The Biology of the Ringed Seal, Phoca hispida, in the Eastern Canadian Arctic. Fisheries Research Board of Canada Bulletin, no. 118. N.p., n.p.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mason, C. F., and Macdonald, S. M. 1986. Otters: Ecology and Conservation. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Melquist, W. E., and Hornocker, M. G. 1983. Ecology of river otters in west central Idaho. Wildl. Monogr. 83:1–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moehlman, P. D. 1986. Ecology of cooperation in canids. In: D. I. Rubenstein & R. W. Wrangham, eds. Ecological Aspects of Social Evolution, pp. 64–86. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univ. Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moors, P. J. 1980. Sexual dimorphism in the body size of mustelids (Mammalia: Carnivora): The role of food habits and breeding systems. Oikos 34:147–158.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morrison, P., Rosenmann, M., and Estes, J. A. 1974. Metabolism and thermoregulation in the sea otter. Physiol. Zool. 47:218–229.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mowbray, E. E., Pursley, D., and Chapman, J.A. 1979. The Status, Population Characteristics and Harvest of the River Otter in Maryland. Publ. Wildl. Ecol. no. 2. [Annapolis:] Maryland Wildlife Administration.

    Google Scholar 

  • Munz, F. W., and McFarland, W. N. 1973. The significance of spectral position in the rhodopsins of tropical marine fishes. Vision Res. 13:1829–1874.

    Google Scholar 

  • Newby, T. C. 1975. A sea otter (Enhydra lutris) food dive record. Murrelet 56:7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nowak, R. M., and Paradiso, J. L. 1983. Walker’s mammals of the world (4th ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oftedal, O. T. 1984. Milk composition, milk yield and energy output at peak lactation: A comparative review. Symp. Zool. Soc. London 51:33–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ortiz, C. L., Costa, D., and LeBoeuf, B. J. 1978. Water and energy flux in elephant seal pups fasting under natural conditions. Physiol. Zool. 51:166–178.

    Google Scholar 

  • Packer, C. 1986. The ecology of sociality in felids. In: D. I. Rubenstein & R. W. Wrangham, eds. Ecological Aspects of Social Evolution, pp. 429–451. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univ. Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Palmer, A. R. 1979. Fish predation and the evolution of gastropod shell structure: Experimental and geographic evidence. Evolution 33:697–713.

    Google Scholar 

  • Payne, S. F., and Jameson, R. J. 1984. Early behavioral development of the sea otter, Enhydra lutris. J. Mamm. 65:527–531.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pilson, M. E. W. 1970. Water balance in California sea lions. Physiol Zool. 43:257–269.

    Google Scholar 

  • Poole, T. B., and Dunstone, N. 1976. Underwater predatory behavior of the American mink (Mustek vison). J. Zool. (Lond.) 178:395–412.

    Google Scholar 

  • Powell, R. A. 1979. Mustelid spacing patterns: Variations on a theme by Mustela. Z. Tierpsychol. 50:153–165.

    Google Scholar 

  • Proctor, J. 1963. A contribution to the natural history of the spotted-necked otter (Lutra maculicollis Lichtenstein) in Tanganyika. East African Wildl. J. 1:93–102.

    Google Scholar 

  • Radinsky, L. B. 1968. Evolution of somatic sensory specialization in otter brains. J. Comp. Neurol. 134:495–506.

    Google Scholar 

  • Radinsky, L. B. 1981a. Evolution of skull shape in carnivores. 1. Representative modern carnivores. Biol. J. Linnean Soc. 15:369–388.

    Google Scholar 

  • Radinsky, L. B. 1981b. Evolution of skull shape in carnivores. 2. Additional modern carnivores. Biol. J. Linnean Soc. 16:337–355.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ralls, K. 1976. Mammals in which females are larger than males. Quart. Rev. Biol. 51:245–276.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ralls, K. 1977. Sexual dimorphism in mammals: Avian models and some unanswered questions. Amer. Nat. 111:917–938.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ralls, K., and Harvey, P. H. 1985. Geographic variation in size and sexual dimorphism of North American weasels. Biol. J. Linnean Soc. 25:119–167.

    Google Scholar 

  • Repenning, C. A. 1972. Underwater hearing in seals: Functional morphology. In: R. J. Harrison, ed. Functional Anatomy of Marine Mammals, 1:307–331. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Repenning, C. A. 1976a. Adaptive evolution of the sea lions and walruses. Syst. Zool. 25:375–390.

    Google Scholar 

  • Repenning, C. A. 1976b. Enhydra and Enhydriodon from the Pacific coast of North America. J. Res. U.S. Geol. Survey 4:305–315.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ridgway, S. H., and Harrison, R. J. 1981. Handbook of Marine Mammals, vols. 1 and 2. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Riedman, M., and Estes, J. A. 1988. Biology of the sea otter: A review. Unpublished ms. Available from J. A. Estes, Institute of Marine Sciences, UCSC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robin, E. D. 1973. The evolutionary advantages of being stupid. Perspect. Biol. Med. 16:369–380.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rowe-Rowe, D. T. 1977a. Food ecology of otters in Natal, South Africa. Oikos 28:210–219.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rowe-Rowe, D. T. 1977b. Prey capture and feeding behaviour of South African otters. Lammergeyer 23:13–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rowe-Rowe, D. T. 1977c. Variations in the predatory behaviour of clawless otter. Lammergeyer 23:22–27.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rowe-Rowe, D. T. 1978a. Biology of two otter species in South Africa. In: N. Duplaix, ed. Otters: Proceedings of the First Meeting of the Otter Specialists Group, pp. 130–139. Morges, Switzerland: International Union for the Conservation of Nature.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rowe-Rowe, D. T. 1978b. The small carnivores of Natal. Lammergeyer 25:1–48.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sandegren, F. E., Chu, E. W., and Vandevere, J. E. 1973. Maternal behavior in the California sea otter. J. Mamm. 54:668–679.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, K. B. 1972a. Reproduction in the Female Sea Otter. Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Project W-17-4, Project Progress Report. Anchorage: Alaska Department of Fish and Game.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, K. B. 1972b. Sex and Age Segregation of Sea Otters. Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Project W-17-4, Project Progress Report. Anchorage: Alaska Department of Fish and Game.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, K. B. 1973a. Reproduction in the Female Sea Otter. Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Project W-17-5, Project Progress Report. Anchorage: Alaska Department of Fish and Game.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, K. B. 1973b. Sex and Age Segregation of Sea Otters. Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Project W-17-5, Project Progress Report. Anchorage: Alaska Department of Fish and Game.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scholander, P. F. 1940. Experimental investigations on the respiratory function in diving birds and mammals. Hvalradets Skrifter 22:1–131.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scholander, P. F., Hock, R., Walters, V., and Irving, L. 1950. Adaptation to cold in arctic and tropical mammals and birds in relation to body temperature, insulation, and basal metabolic rate. Biol. Bull. 99:259–271.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schusterman, R. J. 1972. Visual acuity in pinnipeds. In: H. E. Winn & B. L. Olla, eds. Behavior of Marine Mammals, pp. 469–492. New York: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schusterman, R. J. 1981. Behavioral capabilities of seals and sea lions: A review of their hearing, visual, learning and diving skills. Psych. Rec. 31:125–143.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schusterman, R. J., and Barrett, B. 1973. Amphibious nature of visual acuity in the Asian “clawless” otter. Nature 244:518–519.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sealander, J. A. 1943. Winter food habits of mink in Michigan. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 7:411–417.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shimek, S. J. 1977. The underwater foraging habits of the sea otter, Enhydra lutris. California Fish Game 63:120–122.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shubin, I. G., and Shubin, H. G. 1975. [Sexual dimorphism in mustelids (Mustelidae, Carnivora).] Zhurnal Obschei biologii 36:283–290. (Trans, from Russian in C. M. King, ed. Biology of Mustelids: Some Soviet Research. Wellington, N.Z.: Science Information Division, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.)

    Google Scholar 

  • Sielfeld, W. K. 1983. Mamiferos marinos de Chile. Santiago: Edificiones de la Universidad de Chile.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sielfeld, W., Venegas, C. and Atalah, A. 1977. Consideraciones acerca del estado de los mamiferos marinos en Chile. Anales. Institute de la Patagonia 8:297–315.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sinclair, A. R. E. 1977. The African Buffalo. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sinclair, W., Dunstone, N., and Poole, T. B. 1974. Aerial and underwater visual acuity in the mink Mustela vison. Anim. Behav. 22:965–974.

    Google Scholar 

  • Siniff, D. B., and Ralls, K. 1988. Population status of California sea otters. Final Report to Pacific Outer Continental Shelf Region of Minerals Management Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, Los Angeles, California under Contract No. 14-12-001-3003.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, T. G. 1973. Population Dynamics of the Ringed Seal in the Canadian Eastern Arctic. Fisheries Research Board of Canada Bulletin no. 181. N.p., n.p.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sokolov, A. S., and Sokolov, 1.1. 1970. Some special features of the locomotory organs of the river and sea otters associated with their mode of life. Byulleten’ Moskovskogo Obshchestua Ispytalelei Prirody. Otdel Biologicheskii 75:5–17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stephenson, A. B. 1977. Age determination and morphological variation of Ontario otters. Canadian J. Zool. 55:1577–1583.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stirling, I. 1983. The evolution of mating systems in pinnipeds. In: J. F. Eisenberg & D. G. Kleiman, eds. Recent Advances in the Study of Mammalian Behavior, pp. 489-527.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stubbe, M. 1970. Zur Evolution der analen Markierungsorgane bei Musteliden. Biologisches Zentralblatt 89:213–223.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stubbe, M. 1977. Der Fischotter Lutra lutra (L. 1758) in der DDR. Zoologischer Anzeiger 199:265–285.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tabor, J. E., and Wight, H. M. 1977. Population status of river otter in western Oregon. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 41:692–699.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tarasoff, F. J. 1972. Comparative aspects of the hindlimbs of the river otter, sea otter, and harp seal. In: R. J. Harrison, ed. Functional Anatomy of Marine Mammals, 1:333–359. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tarasoff, F. J. 1974. Anatomical adaptations in the river otter, sea otter, and harp seal. In: R. J. Harrison, ed. Functional Anatomy of Marine Mammals, 1:111–141. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tarasoff, F. J., Bisaillon, A., Pierard, J., and Whitt, A. P. 1972. Locomotory patterns and external morphology of the river otter, sea otter, and harp seal (Mammalia). Canadian]. Zool. 50:915–927.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tarasoff, F. J., and G. L. Kooyman. 1973a. Observations on the anatomy of the respiratory systems of the river otter, sea otter, and harp seal. 1. The topography, weight, and measurements of the lungs. Canadian J. Zool. 51:163–170.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tarasoff, F. J., and Kooyman, G. L. 1973b. Observations on the anatomy of the respiratory system of the river otter, sea otter, and harp seal. 2. The trachea and bronchial tree. Canadian J. Zool. 51:171–177.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trillmich, F., Kooyman, G. L., Mailuf, P., and Sanchez-Grinan, M. 1986. Attendance and diving behavior of South American für seals during El Nino in 1983. In: R. L. Gentry & G. L. Kooyman, eds. Fur Seals: Maternal Strategies on Land and at Sea, pp. 153–167. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univ. Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trowbridge, B. J. 1983. Olfactory communication in the European otter (Lutra lutra). Ph.D. dissert., University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland.

    Google Scholar 

  • van der Zee, D. 1981. Prey of the Cape clawless otter (Aonyx capensis) in the Tsitsikama Coastal National Park, South Africa. J. Zool. (Lond.) 194:467–483.

    Google Scholar 

  • van der Zee, D. 1982 Density of Cape clawless otters Aonyx capensis (Schinz, 1821) in the Tsitsikama Coastal National Park. South African J. Wildl. Res. 12:8–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Zyll de Jong, C. G. 1972. A systematic review of the Nearctic and Neotropical river otters (Genus Lutra, Mustelidae, Carnivora). Life Sciences Contributions, Royal Ontario Museum 80:1–104.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vermeij, G. J. 1977. The mesozoic marine revolution: Evidence from snails, predators and grazers. Paleobiology 3:245–258.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vermeij, G. J. 1978. Biogeography and Adaptation: Patterns of Marine Life. Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walls, G. L. 1963. The Vertebrate Eye. New York: Hafner.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watson, H. 1978. Coastal Otters (Lutra lutra L.)in Shetland. London: Vincent Wildlife Trust.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wayre, P. 1974. Otters in western Malaysia. Otter Trust Annual Report 1974:16–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wayre, P. 1979a. Otter havens in Norfolk and Suffolk, England. Biol. Conserv. 16:73–81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wayre, P. 1979b. The Private Life of the Otter. London: Batsford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wayre, P. 1980. Report of Council 1980—Breeding. Otters: J. Otter Trust 1980:6–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wayre, P. 1981. Report of Council 1981—Breeding. Otters: J. Otter Trust 1981:6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wendell, F. E., Ames, J. A., and Hardy, R. A. 1984. Pup dependency period and length of reproductive cycle: Estimates from observations of tagged sea otters, Enhydra lutris, in California. California Fish Game 70:89–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wickler, W., and Seibt, L. 1983. Monogamy: An ambiguous concept. In: P. Bateson, ed. Mate Choice, pp. 33–50. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, K. 1954. The role of mink and otter as muskrat predators in northwest North Carolina. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 18:199–207.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wise, M. H., Linn, I. J., and Kennedy, C. R. 1981. A comparison of the feeding biology of mink Mustela vison and otter Lutra lutra. J. Zool. (Lond.) 195:181–213.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wittenberger, J., and Tilson, R. 1980. The evolution of monogamy: Hypotheses and evidence. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 11:197–232.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodward, R. 1981. On-the-rocks Birth of a Sea Otter Pup. The Otter Raft no. 25. Carmel, Calif.: Friends of the Sea Otter.

    Google Scholar 

  • Worthy, G. A. J., and Hickie, J. P. 1986. Relative brain size in marine mammals. Amer. Nat. 128:445–459.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright, R. A., and Allton, W. H. 1971. Sea otter studies in the vicinity of Amchitka Island. Bioscience 21:673–677.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zabel, C. J. 1986. Reproductive behavior of the red fox (Vulpes vulpes): A longitudinal study of an island population. Ph.D. dissert., Univ. California, Santa Cruz. 98 pp.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1989 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Estes, J.A. (1989). Adaptations for Aquatic Living by Carnivores. In: Gittleman, J.L. (eds) Carnivore Behavior, Ecology, and Evolution. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-4716-4_10

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-4716-4_10

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-0-412-34360-5

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4757-4716-4

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics