Models of Lexical Access and Bilingualism

Abstract

Research within the domain of bilingualism has grown exponentially within the past three decades, providing greater insight into the linguistic capacity and mental processes surrounding the bilingual memory system. In general, we know that bilinguals tend to have smaller vocabularies in each of their languages (Oller and Eilers 2002; Perani et al. 2003), they are slower to name pictures (Kaushanskaya and Marian 2007; Roberts et al. 2002), and they show a higher incidence of tip-of-the tongue states as compared with monolingual populations (Gollan and Acenas a2004). Furthermore, many bilinguals have different ages of acquisition for each of their languages, and semantic representations of individual words often differ across languages (based on varying social and linguistic contexts), both of which greatly affect lexical organization.

Appendices

List of Keywords and Concepts

Bilingual interactive activation model (BIA), Bilingual memory representations, Connectionist models, Distributed feature model (DFM), Dominant language, Encoding specificity principle, Fan effect, Featural overlap, Hierarchical models, Levels-of-processing-effect, Lexical ambiguity, Lexical level, Lexical memory, Lexical nodes, Multilink model of bilingualism, Nondominant language, Orthographic representation, Revised hierarchical model (RHM), Semantic nodes, Sense model, Word recognition

Thought Questions

• 1. What can we learn about the cognitive system and human memory in general from the study of bilingualism? Specifically, what does the study of bilingual memory models reveal about the memory system for those who only speak one language?

• 2. If the evidence argues for nonselectivity in bilingual processing, what would be some advantages and disadvantages of such behavior?

• 3. Why is it important to examine number of translations or lexical ambiguity in bilinguals?

• 4. How might depth of processing during the encoding stage of memory influence how words are learned in an L2? What are some learning methods that one could use to increase the level of semantic processing when acquiring a new language?

• 5. Does it matter how (i.e., in what environment, context) bilinguals learn their L2? If so, how might context affect the encoding and retrieval processes of emotional information in particular?

Applied Issues in Learning and Memory in the Acquisition of an L2 and Vocabulary Learning

One important aspect of L2 acquisition is how individuals store these items in memory for later retrieval. After all, the main goal of language learning is for one to be able to accurately remember and recall items from memory during language use, whether it is for comprehension or for production during a conversation. From the models of bilingualism discussed within this chapter, there are several applied issues for language learners to consider. For example, it was discussed that the Revised Hierarchical Model reveals that translation is slower and more difficult in the L1-L2 translation direction. Based on the plethora of support for this specific finding, it would be advantageous for L2 learners (as well as for educators) to study and to test themselves on the new vocabulary in this direction, which requires new translations to be generated by the learner (as opposed to just simply recognized). Accurate recall in this L1-L2 direction, as opposed to in the L2-L1 direction, reveals a stronger memory trace and shows successful mastery of the new language.

In addition, the findings from more recent models of bilingual memory examined within this review suggest the importance of context and its role in memory representation. It is evident that the context in which one learns an L2 greatly influences how those words are stored in memory. For this reason, simply pairing two words together and having the language learner memorize the items may not be the most effective way to learn new vocabulary. This issue becomes particularly important for those words that are ambiguous or which have multiple translations across languages. Only when the L2 learner encodes the new vocabulary by forming a deeper semantic association with information already learned can the learner truly begin to grasp the degree of overlap in meaning between the new words and their corresponding translations in the native language. This is particularly important as one begins to learn emotional concepts and vocabulary that elicits an emotional reaction of some sort, as it was demonstrated that emotion words often lack a direct translation across languages. If one is to truly understand the full range of meaning for these items that may be distinct within a language, the context of learning becomes extremely important. Within a classroom setting, this could be done by having the learner generate sentences in which they use the new vocabulary, or ideally, by having them learn the new language in an environment that stresses greater language immersion.

Suggested Research Projects

• 1. We know that levels of processing (during the encoding stage) affect the manner in which new information is learned. What are some ways that one could test this in a language acquisition study? Design an experiment where one could compare different measures that would allow an individual to learn a new language more efficiently.

• 2. Design a research study where you manipulate the role of context on the encoding process of emotional words or emotional information. How might you increase later retrieval of this information using this approach?