Skip to main content

Scale Effects in Landscape Studies

  • Chapter
Landscape Heterogeneity and Disturbance

Part of the book series: Ecological Studies ((ECOLSTUD,volume 64))

Abstract

Landscape ecology cannot escape dealing with spatial analysis, spatial scale and scale-change effects. A landscape may appear to be heterogeneous at one scale but quite homogeneous at another scale, making spatial scale inherent in definitions of landscape heterogeneity and diversity. In analyzing disturbances and other aspects of landscape change, temporal scale (or temporal resolution of events) may also become an important factor, for similar reasons. The importance of integrating the disparate spatial and temporal scales in landscapes was emphasized by Risser in the preceding chapter.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Abramsky, Z., Rosenzweig, M.L., Brand, S. 1985. Habitat selection of Israel desert rodents: Comparison of a traditional and a new method of analysis. Oikos 45(1): 79–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Allen, T.F.H., Starr, T.B. 1982. Hierarchy. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arsufti, T.L., Suberkropp, K. 1985. Selective feeding by stream caddis fly (Trichoptera) detritivores on leaves with fungal-colonized patches. Oikos 45(1): 50–58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, R.G. 1985. The factor of scale in ecosystem mapping. Environ. Management 9: 271–276.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barkman, J.J. 1979. The investigation of vegetation texture and structure, pp. 123–160, in M.J.A. Werger (ed.), The Study of Vegetation. Dr. W. Junk by Publishers, The Hague.

    Google Scholar 

  • BioScience. 1986. Ecology from space. BioSci. 36(7): special issue.

    Google Scholar 

  • Box, E.O. 1978. Geographical dimensions of terrestrial net and gross primary productivity. Radiat. Envl. Biophysics 15: 305–322.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Box, E.O. 1981. Macroclimate and Plant Forms: An Introduction to Predictive Modeling in Phytogeography. Tasks for Veg. Science, Vol. 1. Dr. W. Junk bv Publishers, The Hague.

    Google Scholar 

  • Box, E.O. 1986. Data problems in large-area ecological modeling, pp. 247–262. In W.K. Michener (ed.), Research Data Management in the Ecological Sciences. University of South Carolina Press, Columbia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brook, G.A., Folkoff, M.E., Box, E.O. 1983. A world model of soil carbon dioxide. Earth Surf. Processes 8: 79–88.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, D.A., Gersmehl, P.J. 1985. Migration models for grasses in the American midcontinent. Ann. Assn. Am. Geographers 75: 383–394.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burgess, R.L., Sharpe, D.M. (eds.) 1981. Forest Island Dynamics in Man-Dominated Landscapes. Springer, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caffey, H.M. 1985. Spatial and temporal variation in settlement and recruitment of intertidal barnacles. Ecol. Monogr. 55(3): 313–332.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, J.B. 1977. Variation of selected properties across a soil boundary. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 41: 578–582.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carter, D.B., Schmudde, T.H., Sharpe, D.M. 1972. The interface as a working environment: A purpose for physical geography. Technical Paper No. 7 Association of American Geographers Commission on College Geography, Washington, D.C.

    Google Scholar 

  • Casetti, E. 1970. Generating models by the expansion method: Applications to geographical research. Paper presented at IGU Quantitative Commission Conference, Poznan, Poland.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, J. 1976. The Sanihel Report. Conservation Foundation, Washington.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cliff, A.D., Ord, J.K. 1973. Spatial Autocorrelation. Pion, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, J.P. (ed.) 1975. Photosynthesis and Productivity in Different Environments. IBP series, Vol. 3. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeAngelis, D.L., Waterhouse, J.C., Post, W.M., O’Neill, R.V. 1985. Ecological modeling and disturbance evolution. Ecol. Model. 29: 339–419.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dahiya, I.S., Anlauf, R., Kersebaum, K.C., Richter, J. 1985. Spatial variability of some nutrient constituents of an Alfisol from loess: 2 Geostatistical analyses. Z. Pflanzenernaehr. Bodenkd. 148(3): 268–277.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Delcourt, H.R., Delcourt, P.A., Webb, T. 1983. Dynamic plant ecology: The spectrum of vegetational change in space and time. Quat. Sci. Rev. 1: 153–175.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dickerman, J.A., Stewart, A.J., Wetzel, R.G. 1986. Estimates of net annual aboveground production: Sensitivity to sampling frequency. Ecology 67: 650–659.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dorney, R.S., McClellan, P.W. 1984. The urban ecosystem: Its spatial structure, its scale relationships, and its subsystem attributes. Environments 16: 9–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dyer, M.L. 1986. A model of organic decomposition rates based on climate and litter properties. Master’s thesis, University of Georgia, Athens, GA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edmonds, W.J., Baker, J.C., Simpson, T.W. 1985. Variance and scale influences on classifying and interpreting soil map units. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 49(4): 957–961.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flenley, J.R. 1984. Time scales in biogeography, pp. 63–105. In J.A. Taylor (ed.), Themes in Biogeography. Croom Helm, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Folkoff, M.E., Meentemeyer, V., Box, E.O. 1981. Climatic control of soil acidity. Phys. Geogr. 2: 116–124.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forman, R.T.T., Godron, M. 1986. Landscape Ecology. Wiley & Sons, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Galiano, E.F., Sterling, A., Viejo, J.L. 1985. The role of riparian forests in the conservation of butterflies in a Mediterranean area. Environ. Conserv. 12(4): 361–362.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Godron, M., Forman, R.T.T. 1983. Landscape modifications and changing ecological characteristics, pp. 12–28. In H.A. Mooney and M. Godron (eds.), Disturbance and Ecosystems: Components of Response. Springer-Verlag, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haggett, P., Chorley, R.J., Stoddart, D.R. 1965. Scale standards in geographical research: A new measure of area magnitude. Nature 205: 884–847.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haggett, P., Cliff, A.D., Frey, A. 1977. Locational Analysis in Human Geography. Edition 2. Wiley & Sons, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hansen, J., Russell, A., Lacis, A., Fung, I., Rind, D., Stone, P. 1985. Climate response times: Dependence on climate sensitivity and ocean mixing. Science 229(4716): 857–859.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hardin, G., Baden, J. 1977. Managing the Commons. Freeman, San Francisco.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris, L.D. 1984. The Fragmented Forest: Island Biogeography Theory and the Preservation of Biotic Diversity. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hesketh, J.D., Jones, J.W. (eds.) 1980. Predicting Photosynthesis for Ecosystem Models. 2 Vols. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 273–279.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hill, M.O. 1973. The intensity of spatial patterns in plant communities. J. Ecol. 61: 225235.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoover, S.R. 1986. Comparative landscape structure across physiographic regions of Georgia. Master’s thesis, University of Georgia, Athens, GA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Imeson, A.C. 1984. Geomorphological processes, soil structure, and ecology, pp. 72–84. In A. Pitly (ed.), Geomorphology: Themes and Trends, Barnes and Noble Books, Totowa, NJ.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, W.C., Sharpe, D.M. 1976. An analysis of forest dynamics in the northern Georgia piedmont. Forest Sci. 22: 307–322.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, D.W., Krammel, J.R. 1985. The location theory of animal populations: The case of a spatially uniform food distribution. Am. Nat. 126(3): 392–404.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kershaw, K.A. 1970. An empirical approach to the estimation of pattern intensity from density and cover data. Ecology 51: 729–734.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kesner, B.T. 1984. The Geography of Nitrogen in an Agricultural Watershed: A Technique for Spatial Accounting of Nutrient Dynamics. Master’s thesis, University of Georgia, Athens, GA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Landsberg, H.E. 1983. Variability of the precipitation process in time and space, pp. 3–9. In S.A. Campbell (ed.), Sampling and Analysis of Rain. ASTM STP 823. Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Lieth, H. (ed.) 1974. Phenology and Seasonality Modeling. Ecological Studies, Vol. 8. Springer-Verlag, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lieth, H. 1975. Modeling the primary productivity of the world, pp. 237–263. In H. Lieth and R.H. Whittaker (eds.), Primary Productivity of the Biosphere. Springer-Verlag, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewin, R. 1985. Plant communities resist climatic change. Science 228: 165–166.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Margalef, R. 1968. Perspectives in Ecological Theory. University Chicago Press, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Matheron, G. 1971. The Theoiy of Regionalized Variables and its Applications. Ecole de Mines, Fontainbleau, France.

    Google Scholar 

  • McBratney, A.B., Webster, R., McLaren, R.G., Spiers, R.B. 1982. Regional variation of extractable copper and cobalt in the topsoil of southeast Scotland. Agronomics 2(10): 962–982.

    Google Scholar 

  • McHarg, I.L. 1971. Design With Nature. Doubleday/Natural History Press, Garden City, NY.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meentemeyer, V. 1978. Macroclimate and lignin control of litter decomposition rates. Ecology 59: 465–472.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meentemeyer, V., Box, E.O., Thompson, R. 1982. World patterns and amounts of terrestrial plant litter production. BioSci. 32: 125–128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meentemeyer, V. 1984. The geography of organic decomposition rates. Ann. Assn. Am. Geogr. 74: 551–560.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meentemeyer, V., Gardner, J., Box, E.O. 1985. World patterns and amounts of detrital soil carbon. Earth Surf Process. Landforms 10: 557–567.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Michener, W.K. (ed.) 1986. Research Data Management in the Ecological Sciences. University of South Carolina Press, Columbia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, D.H. 1978. The factor of scale: Ecosystem, landscape mosaic, and region, pp. 63–88. In K.A. Hammond (ed.), Sourcebook on the Environment. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mooney, H.A., Godron, M. (eds.) 1983. Disturbance and Ecosystems: Components of Response. Springer-Verlag, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Muehrcke, P.C. 1980. Map Use: Reading, Analysis and Interpretation. J.P. Publications, Madison, WI.

    Google Scholar 

  • NASA 1986. Earth System Science Overview: A Program for Global Change. Earth System Science Committee, NASA Advisory Council. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington, D.C.

    Google Scholar 

  • Naveh, Z., Lieberman, A.S. 1984. Landscape Ecology: Theory and Applications. Springer-Verlag, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Noss, R.F. 1983. A regional landscape approach to maintain diversity. BioSci. 33: 700–706.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ophuls, W. 1977. Ecology and the Politics of Scarcity. Freeman, San Francisco.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peters, R.H. 1983. The Ecological Implications of Body Size. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Phipps, M. 1981. Information Theory and Landscape Analysis. Proceedings of the International Congress of the Netherlands Society of Landscape Ecology. Veldhoven, Wageningen, Pudoc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pickett, S.T.H., White, P.S. (eds.) 1985. The Ecology of Natural Disturbance and Patch Dynamics. Academic Press, Orlando, FL.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pielou, E.C. 1975. Ecological Diversity. Wiley-Interscience, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Plowright, R.C., Galen, C. 1985. Landmarks of obstacles: The effects of spatial heterogeneity on bumble bee (Bombus) foraging behavior. Oikos 44(3): 459–465.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reiners, W.A. 1983. Disturbance and basic properties of ecosystem energetics, pp. 83–98. In H.A. Mooney and M. Godron, (eds.), Disturbance and Ecosystems. Components of Response. Springer, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Risser, P.G., Karr, J.R., Forman, R.T.T. 1983. Landscape Ecology: Directions and Approaches. IL. Nat. Hist. Survey Spec., Publ. No. 2.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roels, J.M. 1985. Estimation of soil loss at a regional scale based on plot measurements- some critical considerations. Earth Surf. Process Landforms 10: 587–595.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Romme, W.H., Knight, D.H. 1982. Landscape diversity: The concept applied to Yellowstone Park. BioSci. 32: 664–670.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salthe, S.N. 1985. Evolving Hierarchical Systems: Their Structure and Representation. Columbia University Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, D.C., Duffy, D.C. 1985. Scale-dependent variability in seabird abundance. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 25(3): 211–218.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schreiber, K.F. 1986. What is Landscape Ecology? International Association for Landscape Ecology, Wageningen. IALE Bulletin 4(1): 8–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sharpe, D.M., Stearns, F.W., Burgess, R.L., Johnson, W.C. 1981. Spatio-temporal patterns of forest ecosystems in man-dominated landscapes of the eastern United States, pp. 109–116. In S.P. Tjallingii and A.A. de Veer (eds.), Perspectives in Landscape Ecology. Centre for Agricultural Publication and Documentation, Wageningen.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shepard, P., McKinley, D. (eds.) 1969. The Subversive Science: Essays Toward an Ecology of Man. Houghton-Mifflin, Boston, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shugart, H.H., Seagle, S.W. 1985. Modeling forest landscapes and the role of disturbance in ecosystems and communities, pp. 351–384. In S.T.A. Pickett and P.S. White (eds.), The Ecology of Natural Disturbance and Patch Dynamics. Academic Press, Orlando, FL.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steele, J.H. (ed.) 1977. Spatial Pattern in Plankton Communities. Plenum Press, New York and London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thornthwaite, C.W., Mather, J.R. 1955. The Water Balance. Public. Climatol., 8(1): 1–104.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tjallingii, S.P., de Veer, A.A. (eds.) 1981. Perspectives in Landscape Ecology. Centre for Agricultural Publication and Documentation (PUDOC), Wageningen.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tobler, W.R. 1969. Geographical filters and their inverses. Geographical Analysis 1: 234–253.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tomlin, C.D. 1980. The Map Analysis Package. Yale University School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, New Haven, CT.

    Google Scholar 

  • Troll, C. 1939. Luftbildplan und ökologische Bodenforschung. Z. Ges. Erdkunde (Berlin) pp. 241–298.

    Google Scholar 

  • Troll, C. 1950. Die geographische Landschaft und ihre Erforschung. Studium Generale (Heidelberg) 3: 163–181.

    Google Scholar 

  • Troll, C. 1966. Landscape Ecology. Publ. S-4. ITC-UNESCO Centre, Delft.

    Google Scholar 

  • Troll, C. 1968. Landschaftsökologie, pp. 1–21. In R. Tüxen (ed.), Pflanzensoziologie und Landschaftsökogologie. Dr. W. Junk by. The Hague.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tucker, C.J., Townshend, J.R.G., Goff, T.E. 1985. African landcover classification using satellite data. Science 227: 369–376.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tüxen, R. (ed.) 1968. Pflanzensoziologie und Landschaftsökologie. Dr. W. Junk by, The Hague.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vink, A.P.A. 1983. Landscape Ecology and Land Use. Longman, London and New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watts, D. 1984. The spatial dimension in biogeography, pp. 25–62. In J.A. Taylor (ed.), Biogeography: Recent Advances and Future Directions. Barnes and Noble Books, Totowa, NJ.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weinberg, G.M. 1975. An Introduction to General Systems Thinking. Wiley & Sons, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • White, P.S. 1979. Pattern, process, and natural disturbance in vegetation. Bot. Rev. 45: 229–299.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wickham, J.D. 1984. Climatic Correlates of the Initiation of the Growing Season for the Eastern United States, for the Spring Period 1984. Master’s thesis, University of Georgia, Athens, GA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wiens, J.A. 1976. Population responses to patchy environments. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 7: 81–120.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wiens, J.A., Crawford, C.S., Gosz, J.R. 1985. Boundary dynamics: A conceptual framework for studying landscape ecosystems. Oikos 45: 421–427.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wiesner, C.J. 1970. Hydrometeorology. Chapman and Hall, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wojcik, J., Meentemeyer, V., Box, E.O. (1987). Climatic control of base saturation in United States soils. Soil Sci. In press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodmansee, R.G., Adamsen, F.J. 1983. Biogeochemical cycles and ecological hierarchies, pp. 497–516. In R.R. Lowrance, R.L. Todd, L.E. Asmussen and R.A. Leonard (eds.), Nutrient Cycling in Agricultural Ecosystems. Special Publ. No. 23. University of Georgia College of Agricultural Extension Stations, Athens, GA.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1987 Springer-Verlag New York Inc.

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Meentemeyer, V., Box, E.O. (1987). Scale Effects in Landscape Studies. In: Turner, M.G. (eds) Landscape Heterogeneity and Disturbance. Ecological Studies, vol 64. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-4742-5_2

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-4742-5_2

  • Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4612-9137-4

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4612-4742-5

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics