Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Creation of a New Discipline

  • Chapter
The History of Medical Informatics in the United States

Part of the book series: Health Informatics ((HI))

Abstract

The increasingly complex informatics technology that evolved since 1950 created a new domain of knowledge and a new professional discipline. In this chapter we discuss the foundations and evolution of the field of medical informatics, focusing on the role of publications, professional organizations, government, and industry in promoting the field’s growth, success, and impact. The earliest reports on biomedical applications of computers began to appear at conferences sponsored by professional engineering societies as early as 1947. The English term, medical informatics, was successfully introduced at an international meeting held in 1974. Subsequently the range of topics and the field’s scientific base have broadened, while academic informatics programs have been established at a growing number of institutions. The number of informatics articles published annually has grown rapidly, as have peer-reviewed informatics journals, the first two of which were launched in the 1960s. The first comprehensive medical informatics textbook (published in 1990) is now in its fourth edition. Starting in the 1960s, multiple organizations have been formed to focus on medical informatics; as their activities and influence increased, mergers followed, ultimately resulting in the creation of the American Medical Informatics Association (AMIA) in 1988. Other key players have included nursing, industry, academia, and the federal government, especially through the National Institutes of Health (NIH). More recently the field has been further nurtured at the federal level by the Office of the National Coordinator (ONC), which has championed the diffusion of electronic medical records, and the National Center for Advancing Translational Science (NCATS), which has funded clinical translational science awards and their supporting information systems.

Author was deceased at the time of publication.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. AAHC. Executive management of computer resources in the academic health center. Washington, DC: Association of Academic Health Centers; 1984.

    Google Scholar 

  2. AAMC. The GPEP report: physicians for the twenty-first century: report of the panel on the general professional education of the physician and college preparation for medicine. Washington, DC: Association of American Medical Colleges; 1984.

    Google Scholar 

  3. AAMC. Association of American Medical Colleges. 1985. Annual report 1984–1985. 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  4. AAMSI News. 1982; 1.

    Google Scholar 

  5. Ackerman E, Gatewood LC, Connelly D, Hamann R. Distributed capacity networks for clinical information processing. Biosci Commun. 1976;2:293–305.

    Google Scholar 

  6. AMIA. Articles of incorporation, article 3. Washington, DC: American Medical Informatics Association; 1988.

    Google Scholar 

  7. AMIA. Minutes of incorporator’s meeting, attachments 2, 3, 4. Wahington, DC: AMIA; 1988.

    Google Scholar 

  8. Anderson J. Personal communications to M Collen. 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  9. Anderson J, Gremy F, Pages JC. Educational requirements for medical informatics: results of the first international survey. Proc MEDINFO. 1974;1974:207–11.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Anderson J, Gremy F, Pages JC. Education in informatics of health personnel: a study and recommendation by an international working group (WG 4.1.) set up by the International Federation for Information Processing. Amsterdam; 1974.

    Google Scholar 

  11. Atkins H. Proc. progress in medical computing. London: Elliott Medical Computing; 1965.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Ball M, Douglas JV, Walker HP. Preface. In: Ball MJ, Douglas JV, editors. Nursing informatics: where caring and technology meet. New York: Springer; 2011.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  13. Ball M. Integrating information systems in health care. In: Bakker AR et al., editors. Towards new hospital information systems. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 1988. p. 39–44.

    Google Scholar 

  14. Ball MJ, Hannah KJ, Jelger UG. Nursing informatics: where caring and technology meet. New York: Springer-Verlag; 1988.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  15. Ball MJ, Douglas JV, Walker PH, DuLong D. Nursing informatics: transforming nursing. In: Ball MJ, Douglas J, Walker P, editors. Nursing informatics: where technology and caring meet. London: Springer; 2011. p. 5–12.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  16. Ball MJ, et al. Nursing informatics: where caring and technology meet. 2nd ed. New York: Springer; 1995.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  17. Ball MJ, et al. Nursing informatics: where caring and technology meet. 4th ed. New York: Springer; 2011.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  18. Ball MJ, Hannah KJ, Browne JD. Using computers in nursing. Reston: Reston Publishing Co; 1984.

    Google Scholar 

  19. Banta HD, Behney CJ, Sisk JS. Toward rational technology in medicine: considerations for health policy. New York: Springer; 1981.

    Google Scholar 

  20. Barlow JS. An electronic method for detecting evoked responses of the brain and for reproducing their average waveforms. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1957;9:340–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Bartels R, Moore FF. Practical considerations in establishing a biomedical data processing research center. In: Proc 3rd IBM symp. Endicott, NY: IBM. 1961. p. 153–63.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Bernstam EV, Smith JW, Johnson TR. What is biomedical informatics? J Biomed Inform. 2010;43:104–10.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Best WR. The potential role of computers in medical practice. JAMA. 1962;182:994–1000.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Blois MS, Shortliffe EH. The computer meets medicine: emergence of a discipline. In: Shortliffe EH, Perrault L, editors. Biomedical informatics. Reading: Addison-Wesley; 1990. p. 3–6.

    Google Scholar 

  25. Blois MS. The effect of hierarchy on the encoding of meaning. Proc SCAMC. 1986:73–80.

    Google Scholar 

  26. Blois MS. Information and medicine: the nature of medical descriptions. Berkeley: University of California Press; 1984.

    Google Scholar 

  27. Blum BI, Lenhard Jr RE, McColligan EE. An integrated data model for patient care. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng. 1985;32:277–88.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Borass BA. Applications programming in a health services computing center. Proc ACM Annual Conf 1971:613–21.

    Google Scholar 

  29. Brazier MA. From calculating machines to computers and their adoption by the medical sciences. Med Hist. 1973;17:235–43.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Brennan PF. Nursing at SCAMC: have we done what we said we were going to do? Proc SCAMC. 1984:597–600.

    Google Scholar 

  31. Breslow L. Health care versus medical care: implications for data handling. In: Laudet M, editor. Proc of an international symposium. London: Taylor and Francis; 1977. p. 69–75.

    Google Scholar 

  32. Britt PM, Newton CM. A case for functionalization of large computing centers. Proc ACM Annu Conf 1971:357–8.

    Google Scholar 

  33. Brodman K, Erdmann AJ, Goldstein LS. Interpretation of symptoms with a data-processing machine. AMA Arch Intern Med. 1959;103:776–82.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Brodziak A, Suchan L. The introduction of medical informatics: our experiences. Pol Arch Med Wewn. 1975;54:233–41.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Broering NC, Hendrickson GL. Integrated academic information management systems: introduction. Bull Med Libr Assoc. 1986;74:235–7.

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Broering NC, Potter J, Mistry P. Linking bibliographic and information databases: an IAIMS prototype. Proc AAMSI. 1987:169–73.

    Google Scholar 

  37. Brunelle RH. Systems programming at a biomedical computing facility. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1966;128:731–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Caceres CA. Computers in biomedicine. In: Dickson JFB, editor. Future goals of engineering in biology and medicine. New York: Academic; 1969.

    Google Scholar 

  39. Cardarov S. Terminolgicen Recnik po Informatika. Naujcnoj iTexniceskoj Informacii 1975.

    Google Scholar 

  40. Cardiff Publishing. Fifth annual market directory of computers in healthcare. Englewood: Cardiff Pub. Co; 1988.

    Google Scholar 

  41. Childs BW. Healthcare informatics. 1989. p. 6.

    Google Scholar 

  42. Childs BW. ECHO and its board. Health care comput and communic. 1985. p. 32–43.

    Google Scholar 

  43. Collen MF. Foreword. In: Proceedings: AMIA congress. 1982. p. 82.

    Google Scholar 

  44. Collen MF. Computers in preventive health services research. In: 7th IBM medical symposium. Poughkeepsie, NY: IBM. 1965. p. 331–44.

    Google Scholar 

  45. Collen MF. Machine diagnosis from a multiphasic screening program. In: Proc of 5th IBM medical symposium. Endicott, NY: IBM. 1963. p. 1–23.

    Google Scholar 

  46. Collen MF. Automated multiphasic health testing. In: Collen MF, editor. Hospital computer systems. New York: Wiley; 1974. p. 274–94.

    Google Scholar 

  47. Collen MF, Rubin L, Neyman J, Dantzig GB, Baer RM, Siegelaub AB. Automated multiphasic screening and diagnosis. Am J Public Health Nations Health. 1964;54:741–50.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Craig JF. Personal communications to M Collen. 1989.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Crouse L, Wiederhold G. An advanced computer for real-time medical applications. Comput Biomed Res. 1969;2:582–98.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Daskalaki A. Dental computing and applications: advanced techniques for clinical dentistry. Dental informatics online communications. 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  51. Datamation International. User group directory. 1988; 34:25–48.

    Google Scholar 

  52. Davies DE. AAMSI’S forebearers. AAMSI News. 1985;4:1–2.

    Google Scholar 

  53. Davies DE. The first ten years of the society for advanced medical systems. In: Hinman E, editor. Advanced medical systems: an assessment of the contributions. Miami: Symposia Specialist; 1979. p. 125–33.

    Google Scholar 

  54. Degoulet P. The French term Informatique Medicale. Personal Correspondence to M Ball 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  55. Detmer DE, Shortliffe EH. Clinical informatics: prospects for a new medical subspecialty. JAMA. 2014;311:2067–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Detmer DE, Lumpkin JR, Williamson JJ. Defining the medical subspecialty of clinical informatics. JAMIA. 2009;16:167–8.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Dezelic G. Modern medical documentation and the role of medical informatics in solving its problems (author’s transl). Lijec Vjesn. 1979;101:521–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Dick RS, Steen EB, Detmer DE. The computer-based patient record: an essential technology for health care. Revised Edition. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1997.

    Google Scholar 

  59. Dick RS, Steen EB, Detmer DE. The computer-based patient record: an essential technology for health care. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  60. Dixon WJ. BMDP computer program manual. Los Angeles: UCLA; 1961.

    Google Scholar 

  61. Dixon WJ, Britt PM. Health sciences computing facility, UCLA, 1959–79. In: Blum B, Duncan K, editors. A history of medical informatics. New York: Addison-Wesley; 1990. p. 76–83.

    Google Scholar 

  62. DuLong D, Ball MJ. TIGER: technology informatics guiding education reform: a nursing imperative. In: Weaver CA et al., editors. Nursing and informatics for the 21st century. 2nd ed. Chicago: Healthcare Information and Management Systems Society and American Medical Informatics Association; 2010. p. 17–24.

    Google Scholar 

  63. Eden M. Storage and retrieval of the results of clinical research. Proc IRE Trans Med Electron (ME-7). 1960:265–8.

    Google Scholar 

  64. Emlet HE. Minutes of initial meeting of the U.S. Committee on computers in health care. 1980.

    Google Scholar 

  65. Farley BG, Clark W. Simulation of self-organizing systems by digital computer. IRE Trans Inform Theory. 1954;4:76–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  66. Forest RB. NCC at the crossroads. Datamation. 1986. p. 169–72.

    Google Scholar 

  67. Freiherr G. The seeds of artificial intelligence: SUMEX-AIM. Rockville: National Institutes of Health; 1980.

    Google Scholar 

  68. Gabrieli ER. Standardization of medical informatics (special issue). J Clin Comput. 1985;14:62–104.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Galler BA. Value of computers in medicine. JAMA. 1960;174:2161–2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  70. Gardner RM, Overhage JM, Steen EB, Munger BS, Holmes JH, Williamson JJ, et al. Core content for the subspecialty of clinical informatics. JAMIA. 2009;16:153–7.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Garfield E. Informatics and the future of biomedical education curricula. Curr Contents. 1986;4:3–5.

    Google Scholar 

  72. Garfield SR. The delivery of medical care. Sci Am. 1970;222:15–23.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Gee HH. Organization and influence in biomedical computing. Rocquencourt: Journee d’Informatique Medicale; 1970. p. 437–50.

    Google Scholar 

  74. Goodman L. New activities for AEMB. Memo. AEMB J. 1972; 5 Oct 1972.

    Google Scholar 

  75. Greenes RA, Siegel ER. Characterization of an emerging field: approaches to defining the literature and disciplinary boundaries of medical informatics. Proc SCAMC. 1987:411.

    Google Scholar 

  76. Hampton HP. Oversight hearings/computers in health care. Special Report. Comput Med 1979; 8:1–6.

    Google Scholar 

  77. Harrison AJ. Common elements and interconnections. Science. 1984;224:939–42.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Hatton AJ, Perdrizet S, Burghard G, Petitjean R. Study of an informatic system applied to the public health services. Bull Inst Natl Sante Resch Med. 1970;25:427–36.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Haux R. Special issue celebrating 50th anniversary. Methods Inf Med. 2011;50:487–555.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Haux R. On medical informatics. Methods Inf Med. 1989;28:66–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Heller BR, Romano CA, Damrosch SP, McCarthy MR. A needs assessment for graduate specialization in nursing informatics. Proc SCAMC. 1988:337–42.

    Google Scholar 

  82. Hemphill FM, Shannon JA. Medical research potentials in the light of modern data processing. In: Proc 3RD IBM med sym. Endicott, NY: IBM. 1961. p. 9–19.

    Google Scholar 

  83. HIMSS Analytics. Essentials of the U.S. hospital IT market. Chicago: Health Information Management and Systems Society; 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  84. HIMSS Legacy Workgroup. History of healthcare management and systems society. Chicago: HIMSS; 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  85. Hoffman JG, Metropolis N, Gardiner V. Digital computer studies of cell multiplication by Monte Carlo methods. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1956;17:175–88.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Hoffman T. The 6th annual medical hardware and software buyers guide. MD Comput. 1989;6:334–77.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Huesing SA, ECHO. Past, present and future. US Healthc. 1988;5:30–2.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Humphrey H. Senate hearing on the U.S. government and the future of international medical research. Jul 1959.

    Google Scholar 

  89. Humphreys BL, Lindberg DAB. Building the unified medical language system. Proc SCAMC. 1989:475–80.

    Google Scholar 

  90. Jenkin MA. Clinical informatics: a strategy for the use of information in the clinical setting. Inform Health Soc Care. 1984;9:225–32.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Juenemann HJ. The design of a data processing center for biological data. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1964;115:547–52.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Kaplan B, ed. Computers in ambulatory medicine. In: Proc Joint Conf of SCM and SAMS. Washington, DC. 1981.

    Google Scholar 

  93. Kastner V, Pratt AW. Resourcing. Comput Methods Prog Biomed. 1976;5:189–205.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  94. King LS. The automobile makes an impact. JAMA. 1984;251:2352–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Koeppe P. Education in medical informatics in the Federal Republic of Germany. Methods Inf Med. 1977;16:160–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Krasnoff SO. Computers in medicine; a primer for the practicing physician. Springfield: Thomas; 1967.

    Google Scholar 

  97. Kulikowski CA, Shortliffe EH, Currie LM, Elkin PL, Hunter LE, Johnson TR, et al. AMIA board white paper: definition of biomedical informatics and specification of core competencies for graduate education in the discipline. JAMIA. 2012;19:931–8.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Lacey R. Ford, the men and the machine. Boston: Little, Brown; 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  99. Lederberg J. How DENDRAL was conceived and born. In: Blum B, Duncan K, editors. A history of medical informatics. New York: Addison-Wesley; 1990. p. 14–44.

    Google Scholar 

  100. Ledley RS, Lusted LB. Reasoning foundations of medical diagnosis; symbolic logic, probability, and value theory aid our understanding of how physicians reason. Science. 1959;130:9–21.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Ledley RS. Digital computational methods in symbolic logic, with examples in biochemistry. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1955;41:498.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Ledley RS. Medical diagnosis and medical-record processing. In: Ledley RS, editor. Use of computers in biology and medicine. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1965. p. 418–95.

    Google Scholar 

  103. Ledley RS. Report on the uses of computers in biology and medicine. National Research Council. 1960.

    Google Scholar 

  104. Ledley RS. Use of computers in biology and medicine. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1965.

    Google Scholar 

  105. Levy AH, Baskin AB. Clinical computing-1977. J Med Syst. 1977;1:361–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  106. Ligezinski P. Informatics in health service. Pol Tyg Lek. 1972;27:1735–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Lindberg D. NLM long range plan. Report of the board of regents. 1987. p. 31.

    Google Scholar 

  108. Lindberg D. Medical informatics/computers in medicine. JAMA. 1986;256:2120–2.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Lindberg D. Computer networks within health care. In: Peterson H, Isaksson A, editors. Communications networks in health care. Amsterdam: North Holland; 1982. p. 109–20.

    Google Scholar 

  110. Lindberg D. Impact of public policy on the development, adoption, and diffusion of medical information systems technology. Washington, DC: U.S. Govt. Printing Office; 1978.

    Google Scholar 

  111. Lindberg D. The computer and medical care. Springfield: CC Thomas; 1968.

    Google Scholar 

  112. Lindberg DAB. The development and diffusion of a medical technology: medical information systems. In: Medical technology and the health care system: a study of the diffusion of equipment-embodied technology. Washington, DC: National Academy of Science; 1979. p. 201–39.

    Google Scholar 

  113. Linvill JG. University role in the computer age. Science. 1982;215:802–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Lipkin M, Engle RL, Davis BJ, Zworykin VK, Ebald R, Sendrow M, et al. Digital computer as aid to differential diagnosis: use in hematologic diseases. Arch Intern Med. 1961;108:56–72.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Lusted LB. Summary of discussions on medical data centers. In: Proc 3rd IBM Med Sym. Endicott, NY: IBM. 1961. p. 203–13.

    Google Scholar 

  116. Lusted LB. Medical progress: medical electronics. N Engl J Med. 1955;252:580–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Lusted LB, Coffin RW. An automated information system for hospitals and biomedical research laboratories. Chicago: Year Book Pub, Inc; 1967.

    Google Scholar 

  118. Lusted LB. Computers in medicine: a personal perspective. J Chronic Dis. 1966;19:365–72.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Mackintosh DR. Directory of publications in health systems and informatics. Washington, DC: AAMSI; 1985.

    Google Scholar 

  120. Manos D. Clinical informatics becomes a board-certified medical subspecialty. Healthcare IT News. 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  121. Matheson N. Symposium: integrated academic information management systems (IAIMS) model development. Bull Med Libr Assoc. 1988;76(3):221–67.

    PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  122. Matheson NW, Cooper JA. Academic information in the academic health sciences center: roles for the library in information management. J Med Educ. 1982;57:1–93.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Matheson NW. Introduction. Bull Med Libr Assoc. 1988;76(3):221.

    PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  124. Myers HD. Medical education in the information age. Proc Sym Med Inform. Washington, DC: Assoc Am Med College, 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  125. Mikhailov, AIC. Scientific communications and informatics. Arlington: Information Resources Press; 1984.

    Google Scholar 

  126. Miller PL. ATTENDING: a system which critiques an anesthetic management plan. Proc AMIA. 1982: 36–40.

    Google Scholar 

  127. Milsum JH, Laszlo CA. From medical to health informatics. Methods Inf Med. 1983;23:61–2.

    Google Scholar 

  128. Moehr JR. Personal communication to M Collen. 1988.

    Google Scholar 

  129. Morris TA. Structural relationships within medical informatics. Proc AMIA 2000: 590–4.

    Google Scholar 

  130. NCHSR&D. Summary of grants and contracts active in fiscal year 1970. Rockville: HEW, NCHRSR 1970.

    Google Scholar 

  131. NIH. National institutes of health data book. Bethesda: NIH; 1990.

    Google Scholar 

  132. NLM extramural programs: NLM grant activities fact sheet. 1984.

    Google Scholar 

  133. NLM News. Second IAIMS symposium emphasizes health sciences education. NLM News. 1986;41:1.

    Google Scholar 

  134. NLM: Planning for integrated academic information systems. Proc NLM symp 1984. Bethesda: NLM; 14 Oct 1984.

    Google Scholar 

  135. Pages JC, Levy AJ, Gremy F, Anderson J. Meeting the challenge: informatics and medical information. New York: Elsevier Science; 1983.

    Google Scholar 

  136. Parascandola J. Personal communication to M Collen. 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  137. Pardon N. Informatique and occupational medicine. Arch Mal Prof. 1968;29:699–701.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  138. Polacsek RA. The fourth annual medical software buyer’s guide. MD Comput. 1987;4:23.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  139. Pratt AW. Medicine and linguistics. Proc MEDINFO. 1974: 5–11.

    Google Scholar 

  140. Pratt AW. Progress towards a medical information system for the research environment. In: Fuchs G, Wagner G, editors. Sonderdruck aus Krankenhaus-Informations system. New York: Schattauer; 1972. p. 319–36.

    Google Scholar 

  141. Proctor LD, Adey RW. Proc. automatic data processing of electrocardiography and electroencephalography. Washington, DC: NASA; 1964.

    Google Scholar 

  142. PROMIS Laboratory. Automation of the problem-oriented medical record. NCHSR&D Research Digest Series 1977; DHEW Pub No (HRA). p. 77–3177.

    Google Scholar 

  143. Raub WF. The life sciences computer resources program of the National Institutes of Health. 1971. p. 693–700.

    Google Scholar 

  144. Reichertz PL. Medical informatics – fiction or reality? Methods Inf Med. 1980;19:11–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  145. Reiser SJ, Anbar M. The machine at the bedside: strategies for using technology in patient care. New York: Cambridge University Press; 1984.

    Google Scholar 

  146. Revens L. The first twenty-five years: ACM 1947–1962. Commun ACM. 1972;15:485–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  147. RMP proceedings. Conference workshop on regional medical programs. 1968.

    Google Scholar 

  148. Rosenthal G. NCHSR&D research report: computer applications in health care. Washington, DC: DHEW Pub. No. (PHS 79–3251); 1979.

    Google Scholar 

  149. Rothschild K. The age of influence. Datamation. 1988;34:18–24.

    Google Scholar 

  150. Saba VK, Westra BL. Historical perspectives of nursing informatics. In: Saba V, McCormick K, editors. Essentials of nursing informatics. 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  151. Saba VK. Introduction. Proc SCAMC. 1982: 515.

    Google Scholar 

  152. Saba VK, McCormick K. Essentials of nursing informatics. New York: McGraw-Hill, Medical Pub. Division; 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  153. Saenger EL, Sterling TD. Design and operation of a medical computing center. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1964;115:591–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  154. Safran C, Shabot MM, Munger BS, Holmes JH, Steen EB, Lumpkin JR, et al. Program requirements for fellowship education in the subspecialty of clinical informatics. JAMIA. 2009;16:158–66.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  155. Sanazaro PJ. Federal health services R & D under the auspices of the National Center for Health Services Research and Development. In: Flook E, Sanazaro PJ, editors. Health services research and R&D in perspective. Ann Arbor: Univ of Michigan Health Adminstration Press; 1973. p. 150–83.

    Google Scholar 

  156. Sanazaro PJ. National center for health services. Res Dev Dig. 1969;1:1–12.

    Google Scholar 

  157. Schatz W. United States computer research’s basic dilemma. Datamation. 1989;35:44–7.

    Google Scholar 

  158. Schenthal JE, Sweeney JW, Nettleton W. Clinical application of electronic data processing apparatus: II. New methodology in clinical record storage. JAMA. 1961;178:267–70.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  159. Schleyer T. Dental informatics: the right time to invest in training and research? Dental Tribune. 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  160. Schwan HP. Bio-medical electronics past and present. Biomed Electron IRE Trans. 1961;8:234–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  161. Shambaugh V. MJ Clinics in Asia. Personal communication. Mar 2012.

    Google Scholar 

  162. Shambaugh V. The origin of the International Health Evaluation and Promotion Association (IHEPA). 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  163. Shannon JA. Federal support of biomedical sciences: development and academic impact. J Med Educ. 1976;51:1–98.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  164. Shephard RH. Plans for developing a computational facility at the Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions. In: Proc 3rd IBM med symp. Endicott, NY: IBM. 1961. p. 191–6.

    Google Scholar 

  165. Shortliffe EH, Perreault L. Medical informatics: computer applications in health care. Reading: Addison-Wesley; 1990.

    Google Scholar 

  166. Shortliffe EH. The science of biomedical computing. In: Pages J, Levy A, Gremy F, Anderson J, editors. Meeting the challenge: informatics and medical education. New York: Elsevier Science; 1983. p. 3–10.

    Google Scholar 

  167. Shortliffe EH, Cimino JJ. Biomedical informatics: computer applications in health care and biomedicine. London: Springer Science + Business Media, LLC; 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  168. Shortliffe EH, Detmer DE, Munger BS. Clinical informatics: the emergence of a new profession. In: Finell JT, Dixon BE, editors. Clinical informatics study guide: text and review. London: Springer; 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  169. Shortliffe EH. Computer-based medical consultations, MYCIN. New York: Elsevier; 1976.

    Google Scholar 

  170. Shryock RH, Arnau M. American medical research: past and present. New York: Arno Press; 1980.

    Google Scholar 

  171. Skiba DJ, DuLong D, Newbold SK. TIGER collaboratives and diffusion. In: Ball M, Douglas J, Walker P, editors. Nursing informatics. 4th ed. London: Springer; 2011. p. 35–50.

    Google Scholar 

  172. Stacy RW, Waxman BD. Computers in biomedical research. New York: Academic; 1965.

    Google Scholar 

  173. Starr P. The social transformation of American medicine. New York: Basic Books; 1982.

    Google Scholar 

  174. Stead WW. A window on medical informatics. Proc SCAMC. 1987: 3–5.

    Google Scholar 

  175. Sterling T, Pollack S. MEDCOMP: handbook of computer applications in biology and medicine. Cincinnati: University of Cincinnati; 1964.

    Google Scholar 

  176. Stoneburner LL. APPLE medical users group international. Proc SCAMC. 1980;3:1399–400.

    Google Scholar 

  177. Sweeney JW. The role of a computer center in biomedicine. In: Proc 5th IBM symp. Endicott, NY: IBM. 1963. p. 5–18.

    Google Scholar 

  178. Taylor R. The computer: concept, development and problem environment. J Chronic Dis. 1966;19:333–48.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  179. Terry LT. News release. HEW, NIH Division of Research Facilities and Resources. 1963.

    Google Scholar 

  180. Thomas U. OECD informatics studies. Computerized data banks in public administration. 1971.

    Google Scholar 

  181. Troseth M. The TIGER initiative. In: Saba VK, editor. Essentials of nursing informatics. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2006.

    Google Scholar 

  182. Troseth MR. The TIGER initiative. In: Saba VK, McCormick K, editors. Essentials of nursing informatics. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2011. p. 633–40.

    Google Scholar 

  183. Turner WA, Lamson BG. Automatic data processing in hospitals: a powerful new tool for clinical research. Hospitals. 1964;38:87–90.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  184. Tvedness JA. HISSG: leading the way. MUG Q. 1983;12:3.

    Google Scholar 

  185. Uberla K. Medizinische informatick. Neue Munch Beitr Gesch Med. 1978;7–8:629–33.

    Google Scholar 

  186. Vallbona C, Spencer WA, Levy AH, Baker RL, Liss DM, Pope SB. An on-line computer system for a rehabilitation hospital. Methods Inf Med. 1968;7:31.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  187. Van Bemmel J. The structure of medical informatics: bibliography on educational courses at the Free University, Amsterdam. Inform Health Soc Care. 1984;9:175–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  188. Van Bemmel J, Shortliffe EH, Salamon R, Blum B, Jorgensen M. Medical informatics: from art to science. Proc MEDINFO 1986; Foreword p. vii–xv.

    Google Scholar 

  189. Warner HR. A mathematical approach to medical diagnoses: applications to congenital heart disease. JAMA 1961:177(3):173–6.

    Google Scholar 

  190. Waxman BD. Planting the seeds: personal observations. In: Blum B, Duncan K, editors. A history of medical informatics. New York: ACM Press; 1990. p. 111–5.

    Google Scholar 

  191. Waxman BD. Public health service support of biomedical computing. In: Proc of the 3rd IBM Medical Symposium. Endicott: IBM; 1961. p. 199–202.

    Google Scholar 

  192. Weaver CA. Nursing and informatics for the 21st century: an international look at practice, trends and the future. Chicago: Healthcare Information and Management Systems Society; 2006.

    Google Scholar 

  193. Weinrauch H, Patishall E. The air force and applications of computers to medicine and biology. Mil Med. 1958;3:178–80.

    Google Scholar 

  194. Weiss S, Kulikowski CA, Safir A. Glaucoma consultation by computer. Comput Biol Med. 1978;8:25–40.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  195. Williams B. Tokyo Accords. Enclosure 1 minutes of SAMS board of directors meeting. 30 Oct 1980.

    Google Scholar 

  196. Woodbury MA, Tick LJ, Cady LD. The biomedical computing section in a general-purpose computing laboratory. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1964;115:609.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  197. Wraith SM, Aikins JS, Buchanan BG, Clancey WJ, Davis R, Fagan LM, et al. Computerized consultation system for selection of antimicrobial therapy. Am J Health-Syst Pharm. 1976;33:1304–8.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  198. Zielstorff RD. Computers in nursing. Wakefield: Nursing Resources; 1980.

    Google Scholar 

  199. Zimmerman JL, Landesman HM, Bilan JP, Stuffelbeam D, Ball MJ, Bydalek RO. Study of computer applications in dental practice. Dent Clin N Am. 1986;30:731–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  200. Zimmerman JL, Achtenberg J, Sherentz DD. Education in computing: the MUMPS user group example. Proc MEDINFO. 1980;80:358–61.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ, USA

    Edward H. Shortliffe M.D., Ph.D.

  2. Columbia University, New York, NY, USA

    Edward H. Shortliffe M.D., Ph.D.

  3. Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA

    Edward H. Shortliffe M.D., Ph.D.

  4. New York Academy of Medicine, New York, NY, USA

    Edward H. Shortliffe M.D., Ph.D.

Authors
  1. Morris F. Collen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Edward H. Shortliffe M.D., Ph.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Edward H. Shortliffe M.D., Ph.D. .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Oakland, California, USA

    Morris F. Collen

  2. IBM Research, Baltimore, Maryland, USA

    Marion J. Ball

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2015 Springer-Verlag London

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Collen, M.F., Shortliffe, E.H. (2015). The Creation of a New Discipline. In: Collen, M., Ball, M. (eds) The History of Medical Informatics in the United States. Health Informatics. Springer, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-6732-7_2

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-6732-7_2

  • Publisher Name: Springer, London

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4471-6731-0

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4471-6732-7

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation