Skip to main content

Part of the book series: Advances in Photosynthesis and Respiration ((AIPH,volume 23))

Carotenoid pigments provide fruit and flowers with distinctive red, orange and yellow colors and a number of aromas, which make them commercially important in agriculture, food manufacturing and the cosmetic industry. However, it is their roles in photosynthesis and nutrition that explain the absolute requirement for carotenoids in the survival of plants and animals alike. Carotenoids comprise a large family of over 600 members of isoprenoids (Britton et al., 2004).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 259.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 329.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 329.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Al-Babili S, Hartung W, Kleinig H and Beyer P (1999) CPTA modulates levels of carotenogenic proteins and their mRNAs and affects carotenoid and ABA content as well as chromoplast structure in Narcissus pseudonarcissus flowers. Plant Biol 1: 607-612

    Google Scholar 

  • Al-Babili S, Hugueney P, Schledz M, Welsch R, Frohnmeyer H, Laule O and Beyer P (2000) Identification of a novel gene cod-ing for neoxanthin synthase from Solanum tuberosum. FEBS Lett 485: 168-172

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alfonso M, Montoya G, Cases R, Rodriguez R and Picorel R (1994) Core antenna complexes, CP43 and CP47, of higher plant photosystem II: spectral properties, pigment stoichiom-etry and amino acid composition. Biochemistry 33: 10494-10500

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson JM and Chow WS (2002) Structural and functional dynamics of plant photosystem II. Philos Trans R Soc Lond Ser B-Biol Sci 357: 1421-1430

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson JM, Chow WS and Park YI (1995) The grand design of photosynthesis: acclimation of the photosynthetic apparatus to environmental cues. Photosynth Res 46: 129-139

    Google Scholar 

  • Araki N, Kusumi K, Masamoto K, Niwa Y and Iba K (2000) Temperature-sensitive Arabidopsis mutant defective in 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate synthase within the plastid non-mevalonate pathway of isoprenoid biosynthesis. Physiol Plant 108: 19-24

    Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong GA (1994) Eubacteria show their true colors: genetics of carotenoid pigment biosynthesis from microbes to plants. J Bacteriol 176: 4795-4802

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong GA (1997) Genetics of eubacterial carotenoid biosynthesis: a colorful tale. Annu Rev Microbiol 51: 629-659

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bartley G and Scolnik P (1995) Plant carotenoids: pigments for photoprotection, visual attraction and human health. Plant Cell 7: 1027-1038

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bartley GE, Scolnik PA and Beyer P (1999) Two Arabidopsis thaliana carotene desaturases, phytoene desaturase and zeta-carotene desaturase, expressed in Escherichia coli, catalyze a poly-cis pathway to yield pro-lycopene. Eur J Biochem 259: 396-402

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bassi R and Caffarri S (2000) Lhc proteins and the regulation of photosynthetic light harvesting function by xanthophylls. Photosynth Res 64: 243-256

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bassi R, Pineau B, Dainese P and Marquardt J (1993) Carotenoid-binding proteins of photosystem II. Eur J Biochem 212: 297-303

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bassi R, Croce R, Cugini D and Sandona D (1999) Mutational analysis of a higher plant antenna protein provides identifi-cation of chromophores bound into multiple sites. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 96: 10056-10061

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beyer P (1989) Carotene biosynthesis in daffodil chromoplasts: on the membrane-integral desaturation and cyclization reac-tions. In: Boyer CD, Shannon JC and Hardison RC (eds) Physiology, Biochemistry, and Genetics of Nongreen Plastids, pp 157-170. The American Society of Plant Physiologists, Rockville, MD

    Google Scholar 

  • Beyer P and Kleinig H (1991) Carotenoid biosynthesis in higher-plants-membrane-bound desaturation and cycliza-tion reactions in chromoplast membranes from Narcis-sus peudonarcissus. Biol Chem Hoppe-Seyler 372: 527-527

    Google Scholar 

  • Beyer P, Mayer MP and Kleinig H (1989) Molecular oxygen and the state of geometric isomerism of intermediates are essen-tial in the carotene desaturation and cyclisation reactions in daffodil chromoplasts. Eur J Biochem 184: 141-150

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beyer P, Kroncke U and Nievelstein V (1991) On the mecha-nism of the lycopene isomerase cyclase reaction in Narcissus pseudonarcissus L chromoplasts. J Biol Chem 266: 17072-17078

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beyer P, Nievelstein V, Albabili S, Bonk M and Kleinig H (1994) Biochemical aspects of carotene desaturation and cyclization in chromoplast membranes from Narcissus pseudonarcissus. Pure Appl Chem 66: 1047-1056

    Google Scholar 

  • Booker J, Auldridge M, Wills S, McCarty D, Klee H and Leyser O (2004) MAX3/CCD7 is a carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase required for the synthesis of a novel plant signaling molecule. Current Biol 14: 1232-1238

    Google Scholar 

  • Botella-Pavia P, Besumbes O, Phillips MA, Carretero-Paulet L, Boronat A and Rodriguez-Concepcion M (2004) Regulation of carotenoid biosynthesis in plants: evidence for a key role of hydroxymethylbutenyl diphosphate reductase in controlling the supply of plastidalisoprenoid precursors. Plant J 40: 188-199

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bouvier F, D’Harlingue A, Hugueney P, Marin E, MarionPoll A and Camara B (1996) Xanthophyll biosynthesis-cloning, expression, functional reconstitution and regulation of beta-cyclohexenyl carotenoid epoxidase from pepper (Capsicum annuum). J Biol Chem 271: 28861-28867

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bouvier F, Keller Y, D’Harlingue A and Camara B (1998) Xan-thophyll biosynthesis: molecular and functional characteriza-tion of carotenoid hydroxylases from pepper fruits (Capsicum annuum L.). Biochim Biophys Acta 1391: 320-328

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bouvier F, D’Harlingue A, Backhaus RA, Kumagai MH and Camara B (2000) Identification of neoxanthin synthase as a carotenoid cyclase paralog. Eur J Biochem 267: 6346-6352

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bouvier F, Dogbo O and Camara B (2003a) Biosynthesis of the food and cosmetic plant pigment bixin (annatto). Science 300: 2089-2091

    Google Scholar 

  • Bouvier F, Suire C, Mutterer J and Camara B (2003b) Oxidative remodeling of chromoplast carotenoids: identification of the carotenoid dioxygenase CsCCD and CsZCD genes involved in Crocus secondary metabolite biogenesis. Plant Cell 15: 47-62

    Google Scholar 

  • Bramley PM (2002) Regulation of carotenoid formation during tomato fruit ripening and development. J Exp Bot 53: 2107-2113

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Breitenbach J and Sandmann G (2005) ζ−Carotene cis isomers as products and substrates in the plant poly-cis carotenoid biosynthetic pathway to lycopene. Planta 220: 785-793

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Britton G, Liaaen Jensen S and Pfander H (1995) Carotenoids, Vol 1b. Birkhauser Verlag, Basel

    Google Scholar 

  • Britton G, Liaaen Jensen S and Pfander H (1998) Carotenoids, Vol 3. Birkhauser Verlag, Basel

    Google Scholar 

  • Britton G, Liaaen R, Jensen S, and Pfander H (2004) Handbook. Birkauser Verlag, Basel

    Google Scholar 

  • Britton G, Weesie RJ, Askin D, Warburton JD, GallardoGuerrero L, Jansen FJ, de Groot HJM, Lugtenburg J, Cornard JP and Merlin JC (1997) Carotenoid blues: structural studies on carotenoproteins. Pure Appl Chem 69: 2075-2084

    Google Scholar 

  • Bugos RC, Hieber AD and Yamamoto HY (1998) Xanthophyll cycle enzymes are members of the lipocalin family, the first identified from plants. J Biol Chem 273: 15321-15324

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bungard RA, Ruban AV, Hibberd JM, Press MC, Horton P and Scholes JD (1999) Unusual carotenoid composition and a new type of xanthophyll cycle in plants. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 96: 1135-1139

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Busch M, Seuter A and Hain R (2002) Functional analysis of the early steps of carotenoid biosynthesis in tobacco. Plant Physiol 128: 439-453

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Caffarri S, Croce R, Breton J and Bassi R (2001) The major antenna complex of photosystem II has a xanthophyll binding site not involved in light harvesting. J Biol Chem 276: 35924-35933

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Calucci L, Capocchi A, Galleschi L, Ghiringhelli S, Pinzino C, Saviozzi F and Zandomeneghi M (2004) Antioxidants, free radicals, storage proteins, puroindolines and proteolytic activ-ities in bread wheat (Triticum aestivum) seeds during acceler-ated aging. J Agric Food Chem 52: 4274-4281

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Camara B (1993) Plant phytoene synthase complex-component enzymes, immunology and biogenesis. Method Enzymol 214: 352-365

    Google Scholar 

  • Carol P, Stevenson D, Bisanz C, Breitenbach J, Sandmann G, Mache R, Coupland G and Kuntz M (1999) Mutations in the Arabidopsis gene immutans cause a variegated phenotype by inactivating a chloroplast terminal oxidase associated with phytoene desaturation. Plant Cell 11: 57-68

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Corona V, Aracri B, Kosturkova G, Bartley GE, Pitto L, Giorgetti L, Scolnik PA and Giuliano G (1996) Regulation of a carotenoid biosynthesis gene promoter during plant develop-ment. Plant J 9: 505-512

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham FX (2002) Regulation of carotenoid synthesis and accumulation in plants. Pure Appl Chem 74: 1409-1417

    Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham FX and Gantt E (1998) Genes and enzymes of carotenoid biosynthesis in plants. Ann Rev Plant Physiol Plant Mol Biol 49: 557-583

    Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham FX and Gantt E (2000) Identification of multi-gene families encoding isopentenyl diphosphate isomerase in plants by heterologous complementation in Escherichia coli. Plant Cell Physiol 41: 119-123

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham FX and Gantt E (2001) One ring or two? Deter-mination of ring number in carotenoids by lycopene epsilon-cyclases. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 98: 2905-2910

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham FX and Gantt E (2005) A study in scarlet: biosyn-thesis of ketocarotenoids in the flowers of Adonis aestivalis. Plant J 41: 478-492

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham FX and Schiff J (1985) Photoisomerization of delta-carotene stereoisomers in cells of Euglena gracillis mu-tant W3 BUL and in solution. Photochem Photobiol 42: 295-307

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham FX, Chamovitz D, Misawa N, Gantt E and Hirschberg J (1993) Cloning and functional expression in Escherichia coli of a cyanobacterial gene for lycopene cyclase, the enzyme that catalyzes the biosynthesis of β-carotene. FEBS Lett 328: 130-138

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham FX, Jr., Sun Z, Chamovitz D, Hirschberg J and Gantt E (1994) Molecular structure and enzymatic function of lycopene cyclase from the cyanobacterium Synechococcus sp strain PCC7942. Plant Cell 6: 1107-1121

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davison PA, Hunter CN and Horton P (2002) Overexpression of beta-carotene hydroxylase enhances stress tolerance in Ara-bidopsis. Nature 418: 203-206

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Demmig-Adams B and Adams WW, III (1992) Photoprotection and other responses of plants to high light stress. Ann Rev Plant Physiol Plant Mol Biol 43: 599-626

    Google Scholar 

  • Dowling JE and Wald G (1960) The biological function of vita-min A acid. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 46: 587-608

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ernst S and Sandmann G (1988) Poly-cis carotene pathway in the Scenedesmus mutant C-6D. Arch Microbiol 150: 590-594

    Google Scholar 

  • Estevez JM, Cantero A, Romero C, Kawaide H, Jimenez LF, Kuzuyama T, Seto H, Kamiya Y and Leon P (2000) Anal-ysis of the expression of CLA1, a gene that encodes the 1-deoxyxylulose 5-phosphate synthase of the 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol-4-phosphate pathway in Arabidopsis. Plant Physiol 124: 95-103

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frank H and Cogdell RJ (1993) Photochemistry and function of carotenoids in photosynthesis. In: Young AJ and Britton G (eds) Carotenoids in Photosynthesis, pp 253-326. Chapman and Hall, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Fraser PD, Schuch W and Bramley PM (2000) Phytoene synthase from tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) chloroplasts-partial purification and biochemical properties. Planta 211: 361-369

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fraser PD, R ömer S, Kiano JW, Shipton CA, Mills PB, Drake R, Schuch W and Bramley PM (2001) Elevation of carotenoids in tomato by genetic manipulation. J Sci Food Agric 81: 822-827

    Google Scholar 

  • Fraser PD, R ömer S, Shipton CA, Mills PB, Kiano JW, Misawa N, Drake RG, Schuch W and Bramley PM (2002) Evaluation of transgenic tomato plants expressing an additional phytoene synthase in a fruit-specific manner. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 99: 1092-1097

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Galleschi L, Capocchi A, Ghiringhelli S and Saviozzi F (2002) Antioxidants, free radicals, storage proteins and proteolytic activities in wheat (Triticum durum) seeds during accelerated aging. J Agric Food Chem 50: 5450-5457

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Govindjee (1999) On the requirement of minimum number four versus eight quanta of light for the evolution of one molecule of oxygen in photosynthesis: a historical note. Photosyn Res 59: 249-254

    Google Scholar 

  • Green BR and Durnford DG (1996) The chlorophyll-carotenoid proteins of oxygenic photosynthesis. Annu Rev Plant Physiol Plant Mol Biol 47: 685-714

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Griffiths M, Sistrom WR, Cohen-Bazire G and Stanier RY (1955) Function of carotenoids in photosynthesis. Nature 1776: 1211-1214

    Google Scholar 

  • Grunewald K, Eckert M, Hirschberg J and Hagen C (2000) Phytoene desaturase is localized exclusively in the chloro-plast and up-regulated at the mRNA level during ac-cumulation of secondary carotenoids in Haematococcus pluvialis (Volvocales, Chlorophyceae). Plant Physiol 122: 1261-1268

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gruszecki WI, Grudzinski W, Banaszek-Glos A, Matula M, Kernen P, Krupa Z and Sielewiesiuk J (1999) Xanthophyll pigments in light-harvesting complex II in monomolecular layers: localisation, energy transfer and orientation. Biochim Biophys Acta 1412: 173-183

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gunning B and Jagoe M (1967) The prolamellar body. In: Good-win T (ed) Biochemistry of Chloroplasts, Vol 2, pp 655-676. Academic Press, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Hager A (1969) Lichtbedingte pH-erniedrigung in einem chloroplasten-kompartiment als ursache der enzymatischen Violaxanthin-Zeaxanthin-urnwandlung: beziehung zur pho-tophosphorylierung. Planta 89: 224-243

    Google Scholar 

  • Hager A and Holocher K (1994) Localization of the xanthophyll-cycle enzyme violaxanthin de-epoxidase within the thylakoid lumen and abolition of its mobility by a (light-dependent) pH decrease. Planta 192: 581-589

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanley J, Deligiannakis Y, Pascal A, Faller P and Rutherford AW (1999) Carotenoid oxidation in photosystem II. Biochemsitry 38: 8189-8195

    Google Scholar 

  • Havaux M (1998) Carotenoids as membrane stabilizers in chloro-plasts. Trends Plant Sci 3: 147-151

    Google Scholar 

  • Havaux M and Niyogi KK (1999) The violaxanthin cy-cle protects plants from photooxidative damage by more than one mechanism. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 96: 8762-8767

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hentschel V, Kranl K, Hollmann J, Lindhauer MG, Bohm V and Bitsch R (2002) Spectrophotometric determination of yel-low pigment content and evaluation of carotenoids by high- performance liquid chromatography in durum wheat grain. J Agric Food Chem 50: 6663-6668

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Herrin DL, Battey JF, Greer K and Schmidt GW (1992) Regu-lation of chlorophyll apoprotein expression and accumlation. Requirements for carotenoids and chlorophyll. J Biol Chem 267: 8260-8269

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hirschberg J (1998) Molecular biology of carotenoid biosyn-thesis. In: Britton G, Liaaen Jensen S and Pfander H (eds) Biosynthesis and Metabolism, Vol 3, pp 149-194. Birkhauser Verlag, Basel

    Google Scholar 

  • Hirschberg J (2001) Carotenoid biosynthesis in flowering plants. Curr Opin Plant Biol 4: 210-218

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoober JK and Eggink LL (1999) Assembly of light-harvesting complex II and biogenesis of thylakoid membranes in chloro-plasts. Photosynth Res 61: 197-215

    Google Scholar 

  • Isaacson T, Ronen G, Zamir D and Hirschberg J (2002) Cloning of tangerine from tomato reveals a carotenoid isomerase es-sential for the production of beta-carotene and xanthophylls in plants. Plant Cell 14: 333-342

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Isaacson T, Ohad I, Beyer P and Hirschberg J (2004) Analysis in vitro of the enzyme CRTISO establishes a poly-cis carotenoid biosynthesis pathway in plants. Plant Physiol 136: 4246-4255

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Janick-Buckner D, Hammock JD, Johnson JM, Osborn JM and Buckner B (1999) Biochemical and ultrastructural analysis of the y10 mutant of maize. J Hered 90: 507-513

    Google Scholar 

  • Jansson S (1994) The light-harvesting chlorophyll a/b-binding proteins. Biochim Biophys Acta 1184: 1-19

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jansson S (1999) A guide to the Lhc genes and their relatives in Arabidopsis. Trends Plant Sci 4: 236-240

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jilani A, Kar S, Bose S and Tripathy BC (1996) Regulation of the carotenoid content and chloroplast development by levulinic acid. Physiol Plant 96: 139-145

    Google Scholar 

  • Josse EM, Simkin AJ, Gaffe J, Laboure AM, Kuntz M and Carol P (2000) A plastid terminal oxidase associated with carotenoid desaturation during chromoplast differentiation. Plant Physiol 123: 1427-1436

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Joyard J, Teyssier E, Miege C, Berny-Seigneurin D, Marechal E, Block MA, Dorne AJ, Rolland N, Ajlani G and Douce R (1998) The biochemical machinery of plastid envelope membranes. Plant Physiol 118: 715-723

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kajiwara S, Fraser PD, Kondo K and Misawa N (1997) Ex-pression of an exogenous isopentenyl diphosphate isomerase gene enhances isoprenoid biosynthesis in Escherichia coli. Biochem J 324: 421-426

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kirk JTO and Tilney-Bassett RAE (1978) Proplastids, etio-plasts, amyloplasts, chromoplasts and other plastids. In: Kirk JTO and Tinley-Bassett RAE (eds) The Plastids: Their Chemistry, Structure, Growth and Inheritance, pp 217-239. Elsivier/North Holland Biomedical Press, Amsterdam

    Google Scholar 

  • Knox J and Dodge A (1985) Singlet oxygen and plants. Phy-tochem 24: 889-896

    Google Scholar 

  • Koornneef M, Jorner ML, Brinkhorst van der Swan DLC and Karssen CM (1982) The isolation of abscisic acid (ABA) deficient mutants by selection of induced revertants in non-germinating gibberellin sensitive lines of Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. Theor Appl Genet 61: 385-393

    Google Scholar 

  • Krinsky NI (1971) Function of carotenoids. In: Isler O, Guttman G and Solms U (eds), Carotenoids, pp 669-716. Birkhauser Verlag, Basel

    Google Scholar 

  • Krubasik P and Sandmann G (2000) Molecular evolution of ly-copene cyclases involved in the formation of carotenoids with ionone end groups. Biochem Soc Trans 28: 806-810

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kuhlbrandt W, Wang DN and Fujiyoshi Y (1994) Atomic model of plant light-harvesting complex by electron crystallography. Nature 367: 614-621

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kulheim C, Agren J and Jansson S (2002) Rapid regulation of light harvesting and plant fitness in the field. Science 297: 91-93

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lange BM and Ghassemian M (2003) Genome organization in Arabidopsis thaliana: a survey for genes involved in iso-prenoid and chlorophyll metabolism. Plant Mol Biol 51: 925-948

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lange BM, Rujan T, Martin W and Croteau R (2000) Iso-prenoid biosynthesis: the evolution of two ancient and distinct pathways across genomes. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 97: 13172-13177

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Larkin RM, Alonso J, Ecker J and Chory J (2003) GUN4, a regulator of chlorophyll synthesis and intracellular signaling. Science 299: 902-906

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Laule O, Furholz A, Chang H-S, Zhu T, Wang X, Heifetz PB, Gruissem W and Lange BM (2003) Crosstalk between cytoso-lic and plastidalpathways of isoprenoid biosynthesis in Ara-bidopsis thaliana. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 100: 6866-6871

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Li L, Paolillo DJ, Parthasarathy MV, DiMuzio EM and Garvin DF (2001) A novel gene mutation that confers abnormal patterns of β-carotene accumulation in cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis). Plant J 26: 59-67

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Li XP, Bjorkman O, Shih C, Grossman AR, Rosenquist M, Jansson S and Niyogi KK (2000) A pigment-binding protein essential for regulation of photosynthetic light harvesting. Na-ture 403: 391-395

    Google Scholar 

  • Li XP, Muller-Moule P, Gilmore AM and Niyogi KK (2002) PsbS-dependent enhancement of feedback de-excitation pro-tects photosystem II from photoinhibition. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 99: 15222-15227

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lichtenthaler HK (1999) The 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate pathway of isoprenoid biosynthesis in plants. Annu Rev Plant Physiol Plant Mol Biol 50: 47-65

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lichtenthaler HK, Schwender J, Disch A and Rohmer M (1997) Biosynthesis of isoprenoids in higher plant chloroplasts pro-ceeds via a mevalonate independent pathway. FEBS Lett 400: 271-274

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lindgren LO, Stalberg KG and Hoglund AS (2003) Seed-specific overexpression of an endogenous Arabidopsis phytoene syn-thase gene results in delayed germination and increased levels of carotenoids, chlorophyll and abscisic acid. Plant Physiol 132: 779-785

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liu Z, Yan H, Wang K, Kuang T, Zhang J, Gui L, An X and Chang W (2004) Crystal structure of spinach major light-harvesting complex at 2.72AËš resolution. Nature 428: 287-292

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lois LM, Rodríguez-Concepci ón M, Gallego F, Campos N and Boronat A (2000) Carotenoid biosynthesis during tomato fruit development: regulatory role of 1-deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate synthase. Plant J 22: 503-513

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lokstein H, Tian L, Polle JEW and DellaPenna D (2002) Xan-thophyll biosynthetic mutants of Arabidopsis thaliana: altered nonphotochemical quenching of chlorophyll fluorescence is due to changes in photosystem II antenna size and stability. Biochim Biophys Acta 1553: 309-319

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mann V, Harker M, Pecker I and Hirschberg J (2000) Metabolic engineering of astaxanthin production in tobacco flowers. Nat Biotechnol 18: 888-892

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Matsubara S, Morosinotto T, Bassi R, Christian A-L, Fischer-Schliebs E, Luttge U, Orthen B, Franco AC, Scarano FR, Forster B, Pogson BJ and Osmond CB (2003) Occurence of the lutein-epoxide cycle in mistletoes of the Loranthaceae and Viscaceae. Planta 217: 868-879

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Merzlyak MN and Solovchenko AE (2002) Photostability of pig-ments in ripening apple fruit: a possible photoprotective role of carotenoids during plant senescence. Plant Sci 163: 881-888

    Google Scholar 

  • Milborrow BV, Swift IE and Netting AG (1982) The stereochem-istry of hydroxylation of the carotenoid lutein in Calendula officinalis. Phytochem 21: 2853-2857

    Google Scholar 

  • Milborrow BV, Nonhebel HM and Willows RD (1988) 2,7-Dimethylocta-2,4-dienedioic acid is not a by-product of ab-scisic acid biosynthesis. Plant Sci 56: 49-53

    Google Scholar 

  • Misawa N, Nakagawa M, Kobayashi K, Yamano S, Izawa Y, Nakamura K and Harashima K (1990) Elucidation of the Er-winia uredovora carotenoid biosynthetic pathway by func-tional analysis of gene products expressed in Escherichia coli. J Bacteriol 172: 6704-6712

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Misawa N, Masamoto K, Hori T, Ohtani T, Boger P and Sandmann G (1994) Expression of an Erwinia phytoene de-saturase gene not only confers multiple resistance to herbi-cides interfering with carotenoid biosynthesis but also alters xanthophyll metabolism in transgenic plants. Plant J 6: 481-489

    Google Scholar 

  • Misawa N, Satomi Y, Kondo K, Yokoyama A, Kajiwara S, Saito T, Ohtani T and Miki W (1995a) Structure and functional analysis of a marine bacterial carotenoid biosynthesis gene cluster and astaxanthin biosynthetic pathway proposed at the gene level. J Bacteriol 177: 6575-6584

    Google Scholar 

  • Misawa N, Kajiwara S, Kondo K, Yokoyama A, Satomi Y, Saito T, Miki W and Ohtani T (1995b) Canthaxanthin biosynthesis by the conversion of methylene to keto groups in a hydro-carbon beta-carotene by a single gene. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 209: 867-876

    Google Scholar 

  • Moehs CP, Tian L, Osteryoung KW and DellaPenna D (2001) Analysis of carotenoid biosynthetic gene expression dur-ing marigold petal development. Plant Mol Biol 45: 281-293

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nievelstein V, Vandekerckhove J, Tadros MH, Lintig JV, Nitschke W and Beyer P (1995) Carotene desaturation is linked to a respiratory redox pathway in Narcissus pseudonarcissus chromoplast membranes-involvement of a 23-KDa oxygen-evolving-complex-like protein. Eur J Biochem 233: 864-872

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Niyogi KK (1999) Photoprotection revisited: genetic and molec-ular approaches. Annu Rev Plant Physiol Plant Mol Biol 50: 333-359

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Niyogi KK, Bjorkman O and Grossman AR (1997a) The roles of specific xanthophylls in photoprotection. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 94: 14162-14167

    Google Scholar 

  • Niyogi KK, Bjorkman O and Grossman AR (1997b) Chlamy-domonas xanthophyll cycle mutants identified by video imag-ing of chlorophyll fluorescence quenching. Plant Cell 9: 1369-1380

    Google Scholar 

  • Niyogi KK, Grossman AR and Bjorkman O (1998) Arabidopsis mutants define a central role for the xanthophyll cycle in the regulation of photosynthetic energy conversion. Plant Cell 10: 1121-1134

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Niyogi KK, Shih C, Chow WS, Pogson BJ, DellaPenna D and Bjorkman O (2001) Photoprotection in a zeaxanthin- and lutein-deficient double mutant of Arabidopsis. Photosynth Res 67: 139-145

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Norris SR, Barrette TR and DellaPenna D (1995) Genetic dis-section of carotenoid synthesis in Arabidopsis defines plasto-quinone as an essential component of phytoene desaturation. Plant Cell 7: 2139-2149

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Park H, Kreunen SS, Cuttriss AJ, DellaPenna D and Pogson BJ (2002) Identification of the carotenoid isomerase provides in-sight into carotenoid biosynthesis, prolamellar body formation and photomorphogenesis. Plant Cell 14: 321-332

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Parry AD and Horgan R (1992) Abscisic-acid biosynthesis in roots.1. The identification of potential abscisic-acid precur-sors, and other carotenoids. Planta 187: 185-191

    Google Scholar 

  • Paulsen H (1999) Carotenoids and the assembly of light-harvesting complexes. In: Frank H, Young A, Britton G and Cogdell R (eds) The Photochemistry of Carotenoids, Vol 8, pp 123-135. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Amsterdam

    Google Scholar 

  • Perry KL, Simonitch TA, Harrisonlavoie KJ and Liu ST (1986) Cloning and regulation of Erwinia herbicola pigment genes. J Bacteriol 168: 607-612

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pfundel E and Bilger W (1994) Regulation and possible function of the violaxanthin cycle. Photosynth Res 42: 89-109

    Google Scholar 

  • Phillip D and Young AJ (1995) Occurrence of the carotenoid lactucaxanthin in higher plant. LHC II. 43: 273-282

    Google Scholar 

  • Pinzino C, Nanni B and Zandomeneghi M (1999) Aging, free radicals and antioxidants in wheat seeds. J Agric Food Chem 47: 1333-1339

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Plumley FG and Schmidt GW (1987) Reconstitution of chloro-phyll a/b light-harvesting complexes: xanthophyll-dependent assembly and energy transfer. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 84: 146-150

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pogson BJ and Rissler HM (2000) Genetic manipulation of carotenoid biosynthesis and photoprotection. Philos Trans R Soc Lond Ser B-Biol Sci 355: 1395-1403

    Google Scholar 

  • Pogson B, McDonald K, Truong M, Britton G and DellaPenna D (1996) Arabidopsis carotenoid mutants demonstrate lutein is not essential for photosynthesis in higher plants. Plant Cell 8: 1627-1639

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pogson BJ, Niyogi KK, Bjorkman O and DellaPenna D (1998) Altered xanthophyll compositions adversely affect chlorophyll accumulation and nonphotochemical quenching in Arabidop-sis mutants. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 95: 13324-13329

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Powls R and Britton G (1977) The roles of isomers of phytoene, phytofluene and zeta-carotene in carotenoid biosynthesis by a mutant strain of Scenedesmus obliquus. Arch Microbiol 115: 175-179

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rissler HM and Pogson BJ (2001) Antisense inhibition of the beta-carotene hydroxylase enzyme in Arabidopsis and the im-plications for carotenoid accumulation, photoprotection and antenna assembly. Photosynth Res 67: 127-137

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rodriguez-Concepcion M and Gruissem W (1999) Arachidonic acid alters tomato HMG expression and fruit growth and induces 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase- independent lycopene accumulation. Plant Physiol 119: 41-48

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Romer S, Fraser PD, Kiano JW, Shipton CA, Misawa N, Schuch W and Bramley PM (2000) Elevation of the provitamin A content of transgenic tomato plants. Nat Biotechnol 18: 666-669

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ronen G, Cohen M, Zamir D and Hirschberg J (1999) Regulation of carotenoid biosynthesis during tomato fruit development: expression of the gene for lycopene epsilon-cyclase is down-regulated during ripening and is elevated in the mutant Delta. Plant J 17: 341-351

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ronen G, Carmel-Goren L, Zamir D and Hirschberg J (2000) An alternative pathway to beta-carotene formation in plant chromoplasts discovered by map-based cloning of Beta and old-gold color mutations in tomato. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 97: 11102-11107

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rosati C, Aquilani R, Dharmapuri S, Pallara P, Marusic C, Tavazza R, Bouvier F, Camara B and Giuliano G (2000) Metabolic engineering of beta-carotene and lycopene content in tomato fruit. Plant J 24: 413-419

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rossel JB, Wilson IW and Pogson BJ (2002) Global changes in gene expression in response to high light in Arabidopsis. Plant Physiol 130: 1109-1120

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ruban AV, Lee PJ, Wentworth M, Young AJ and Horton P (1999) Determination of the stoichiometry and strength of binding of xanthophylls to the photosystem II light harvesting complexes. J Biol Chem 274: 10458-10465

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sandmann G (2001) Genetic manipulation of carotenoid biosyn-thesis: strategies, problems and achievements. Trends Plant Sci 6: 14-17

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sandmann G (2002) Molecular evolution of carotenoid biosyn-thesis from bacteria to plants. Physiol Plant 116: 431-440

    Google Scholar 

  • Satoh K (1993) Isolation and properties of the photosystem II reaction center. In: Deisenhofer J and Norris J (eds) The Pho-tosynthetic Reaction Center, pp 289-318. Academic Press, San Diego

    Google Scholar 

  • Schledz M, Al-Babili S, VonLintig J, Haubruck H, Rabbani S, Kleinig H and Beyer P (1996) Phytoene synthase from Nar-cissus pseudonarcissus: functional expression, galactolipid re-quirement, topological distribution in chromoplasts and induc-tion during flowering. Plant J 10: 781-792

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schmid VHR, Cammarata KV, Bruns BU and Schmidt GW (1997) In vitro reconstitution of the photosystem I light-harvesting complex LHCI-730: heterodimerization is required for antenna pigment organization. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 94: 7667-7672

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schnurr G, Misawa N and Sandmann G (1996) Expression, pu-rification and properties of lycopene cyclase from Erwinia uredovora. Biochem J 315: 869-874

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz SH, Tan BC, Gage DA, Zeevaart JAD and McCarty DR (1997) Specific oxidative cleavage of carotenoids by VP14 of maize. Science 276: 1872-1874

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz SH, Qin XQ and Zeevaart JAD (2001) Characterization of a novel carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase from plants. J Biol Chem 276: 25208-25211

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz SH, Tan BC, McCarty DR, Welch W and Zeevaart JAD (2003) Substrate specificity and kinetics for VP14, a carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase in the ABA biosynthetic pathway. Biochim Biophys Acta 1619: 9-14

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz SH, Qin X and Loewen MC (2004) The biochem-ical characterization of two carotenoid cleavage enzymes from Arabidopsis indicates that a carotenoid-derived com-pound inhibits lateral branching. J Biol Chem 279: 46940-46945

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seibert M (1993) Biochemical, biophysical and structural char-acterization of the photosystem II reaction center complex. In: Deisenhofer J and Norris JR (eds) The Photosynthetic Reaction Center, Vol 1, pp 319-356. Academic Press, San Diego

    Google Scholar 

  • Seo M and Koshiba T (2002) Complex regulation of ABA biosyn-thesis in plants. Trends Plant Sci 7: 41-48

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shewmaker CK, Sheehy JA, Daley M, Colburn S and Ke DY (1999) Seed-specific overexpression of phytoene synthase: in-crease in carotenoids and other metabolic effects. Plant J 20: 401-412

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Siefermann D and Yamamoto HY (1975) Light-induced de-epoxidation of violaxanthin in lettuce chloroplasts. Biochim Biophys Acta 387: 149-158

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Simkin AJ, Zhu CF, Kuntz M and Sandmann G (2003) Light-dark regulation of carotenoid biosynthesis in pepper (Capsicum an-nuum) leaves. J Plant Physiol 160: 439-443

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sommer A and Davidson FR (2002) Assessment and control of vitamin A deficiency: the Annecy Accords. J Nutrit 132: 2845S-2850S

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sorefan K, Booker J, Haurogne K, Goussot M, Bainbridge K, Foo E, Chatfield S, Ward S, Beveridge C, Rameau C and Leyser O (2003) MAX4 and RMS1 are orthologous dioxygenase-like genes that regulate shoot branching in Arabidopsis and pea. Genes Dev 17: 1469-1474

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steinbrenner J and Linden H (2003) Light induction of carotenoid biosynthesis genes in the green alga Haematococ-cus pluvialis: regulation by photosynthetic redox control. Plant Mol Biol 52: 343-356

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stickforth P, Steiger S, Hess WR and Sandmann G (2003) A novel type of lycopene epsilon-cyclase in the marine cyanobac-teriumProchlorococcus marinus MED4. Arch Microbiol 179: 409-415

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Strand A, Asami T, Alonso J, Ecker JR and Chory J (2003) Chloroplast to nucleus communication triggered by accumu-lation of Mg-protoporphyrinIX. Nature 421: 79-83

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sun WH, Verhoeven AS, Bugos RC and Yamamoto HY (2001) Suppression of zeaxanthin formation does not reduce photo-synthesis and growth of transgenic tobacco under field conditions. Photosynth Res 67: 41-50

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sun ZR, Gantt E and Cunningham FX (1996) Cloning and func-tional analysis of the beta-carotene hydroxylase of Arabidopsis thaliana. J Biol Chem 271: 24349-24352

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tan BC, Schwartz SH, Zeevaart JAD and McCarty DR (1997) Genetic control of abscisic acid biosynthesis in maize. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 94: 12235-12240

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tan BC, Joseph LM, Deng WT, Liu LJ, Li QB, Cline K and McCarty DR (2003) Molecular characterization of the Arabidopsis 9-cis epoxycarotenoid dioxygenase gene family. Plant J 35: 44-56

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tardy F and Havaux M (1997) Thylakoid membrane fluidity and thermostability during the operation of the xanthophyll cy-cle in higher-plant chloroplasts. Biochim Biophys Acta 1330: 179-193

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor HF and Smith TA (1967) Production of plant growth inhibitors from xanthophylls: a possible source of dormin. Nature 215: 1513-1514

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Telfer A (2002) What is beta-carotene doing in the photosystem II reaction centre? Philos Trans R Soc Lond Ser B-Biol Sci 357: 1431-1439

    Google Scholar 

  • Tevini M and Steinmuller D (1985) Composition and function of plastoglobuli. II. Lipid composition of leaves and plastoglobuli during senescence. Planta 163: 91-96

    Google Scholar 

  • Tian L and DellaPenna D (2001) Characterization of a sec-ond carotenoid beta-hydroxylase gene from Arabidopsis and its relationship to the LUT1 locus. Plant Mol Biol 47: 379-388

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tian L, Magallanes-Lundback M, Musetti V and DellaPenna D (2003) Functional analysis of β- and ε-ring carotenoid hy-droxylases in Arabidopsis. Plant Cell 15: 1320-1332

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tian L, Musetti V, Kim J, Magallanes-Lundback M and DellaPenna D (2004) The Arabidopsis LUT1 locus encodes a member of the cytochrome P450 family that is required for carotenoid ε-ring hydroxylation activity. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 101: 402-407

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tomes ML, Quackenbush FL, Nelsom OE and North B (1953) The inheritance of carotenoid pigment systems in the tomato. Genetics 38: 117-127

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Verhoeven AS, Adams WW, Demmig-Adams B, Croce R and Bassi R (1999) Xanthophyll cycle pigment localization and dynamics during exposure to low temperatures and light stress in Vinca major. Plant Physiol 120: 727-737

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Verhoeven AS, Bugos RC and Yamamoto HY (2001) Transgenic tobacco with suppressed zeaxanthin formation is susceptible to stress-induced photoinhibition. Photosynth Res 67: 27-39

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vishnevetsky M, Ovadis M and Vainstein A (1999) Carotenoid sequestration in plants: the role of carotenoid-associated pro-teins. Trends Plant Sci 4: 232-235

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • von Lintig J and Vogt K (2000) Molecular identification of an en-zyme cleaving β-carotene to retinal. J Biol Chem 275: 11915-11920

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • von Lintig J, Welsch R, Bonk M, Giuliano G, Batschauer A and Kleinig H (1997) Light-dependent regulation of carotenoid biosynthesis occurs at the level of phytoene syn-thase expression and is mediated by phytochrome in Sinapis alba and Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings. Plant J 12: 625-634

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vrettos JS, Stewart DH, de Paula JC and Brudvig GW (1999) Low-temperature optical and resonance Raman spectra of a carotenoid cation radical in photosystem II. J Phys Chem B 103: 6403-6406

    Google Scholar 

  • Wahlberg I and Eklund A-M (1998) Degraded carotenoids. In: Britton G, Liaaen Jensen S and Pfander H (eds) Carotenoids: Biosynthesis and Metabolism, Vol 3, pp 195-216. Birkhauser Verlag, Basel

    Google Scholar 

  • Wald G (1968) The molecular basis of visual excitation. Nature 219: 800-807

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Welsch R, Beyer P, Hugueney P, Kleinig H and von Lintig J (2000) Regulation and activation of phytoene synthase, a key en-zyme in carotenoid biosynthesis, during photomorphogenesis. Planta 211: 846-854

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Welsch R, Medina J, Giuliano G, Beyer P and von Lintig J (2003) Structural and functional characterization of the phytoene syn-thase promoter from Arabidopsis thaliana. Planta 216: 523-534

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wetzel CM and Rodermel SR (1998) Regulation of phytoene desaturase expression is independent of leaf pigment con-tent in Arabidopsis thaliana. Plant Mol Biol 37: 1045-1053

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Woitsch S and R ömer S (2003) Expression of xanthophyll biosynthetic genes during light-dependant chloroplast differ-entiation. Plant Physiol 132: 1508-1517

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wu DY, Wright DA, Wetzel C, Voytas DF and Rodermel S (1999) The IMMUTANS variegation locus of Arabidopsis de-fines a mitochondrial alternative oxidase homolog that func-tions during early chloroplast biogenesis. Plant Cell 11: 43-55

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wyss A, Wirtz G, Woggon W, Brugger R, Wyss M, Friedlein A, Bachmann H and Hunziker W (2000) Cloning and expression of β,β-carotene 15,15′ -dioxygenase. Biochem Biophys Res Comm 271: 334-336

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yamamoto HY (1979) Biochemistry of the xanthophyll cycle in higher plants. Pure Appl Chem 51: 639-648

    Google Scholar 

  • Yamamoto HY, Chichester CO and Nakayama TO (1962) Studies on light and dark interconversions of leaf xanthophylls. Arch Biochem Biophys 97: 168-173

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Young AJ (1993) Factors that affect the carotenoid composi-tion of higher plants and algae. In: Young AJ and Britton G (eds) Carotenoids in Photosynthesis, pp 161-205. Chapman and Hall, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Zeidler J, Schwender J, Muller C, Wiesner J, Weidemeyer C, Beck E, Jomaa H and Lichtenthaler HK (1998) Inhibition of the non-mevalonate 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate pathway of plant isoprenoid biosynthesis by fosmidomycin. Z Naturforsch C 53: 980-986

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2007 Springer

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Howitt, C.A., Pogson, B.J., Cuttriss, A.J., Mimica, J.L. (2007). Carotenoids. In: Wise, R.R., Hoober, J.K. (eds) The Structure and Function of Plastids. Advances in Photosynthesis and Respiration, vol 23. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-4061-0_16

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics