Abstract
Objectively measuring and interpreting an animal’s sensory experience remains a challenging task. This is particularly true when using preclinical rodent models to study pain mechanisms and screen for potential new pain treatment reagents. How to determine their pain states in a precise and unbiased manner is a hurdle that the field will need to overcome. Here, we describe our efforts to measure mouse somatosensory reflexive behaviors with greatly improved precision by high-speed video imaging. We describe how coupling subsecond ethograms of reflexive behaviors with a statistical reduction method and supervised machine learning can be used to create a more objective quantitative mouse “pain scale.” Our goal is to provide the readers with a protocol of how to integrate some of the new tools described here with currently used mechanical somatosensory assays, while discussing the advantages and limitations of this new approach.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Melzack R (1975) The McGill pain questionnaire: major properties and scoring methods. Pain 1(3):277–299
Hawker GA et al (2011) Measures of adult pain: visual analog scale for pain (VAS pain), numeric rating scale for pain (NRS pain), McGill pain questionnaire (MPQ), short-form McGill pain questionnaire (SF-MPQ), chronic pain grade scale (CPGS), short Form-36 bodily pain scale (SF-36 BPS), and measure of intermittent and constant osteoarthritis pain (ICOAP). Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) 63(Suppl 11):S240–S252
Garra G et al (2010) Validation of the Wong-baker FACES pain rating scale in pediatric emergency department patients. Acad Emerg Med 17(1):50–54
Daut RL, Cleeland CS, Flanery RC (1983) Development of the Wisconsin brief pain questionnaire to assess pain in cancer and other diseases. Pain 17(2):197–210
Bennett M (2001) The LANSS pain scale: the Leeds assessment of neuropathic symptoms and signs. Pain 92(1–2):147–157
Kim KJ, Yoon YW, Chung JM (1997) Comparison of three rodent neuropathic pain models. Exp Brain Res 113(2):200–206
Gregory NS et al (2013) An overview of animal models of pain: disease models and outcome measures. J Pain 14(11):1255–1269
Burma NE et al (2017) Animal models of chronic pain: advances and challenges for clinical translation. J Neurosci Res 95(6):1242–1256
Mogil JS (2009) Animal models of pain: progress and challenges. Nat Rev Neurosci 10(4):283–294
Fried NT et al (2020) Improving pain assessment in mice and rats with advanced videography and computational approaches. Pain 161(7):1420–1424
Vardeh D, Mannion RJ, Woolf CJ (2016) Toward a mechanism-based approach to pain diagnosis. J Pain 17(9 Suppl):T50–T69
Berge OG (2011) Predictive validity of behavioural animal models for chronic pain. Br J Pharmacol 164(4):1195–1206
Kissin I (2010) The development of new analgesics over the past 50 years: a lack of real breakthrough drugs. Anesth Analg 110(3):780–789
Woolf CJ (2010) Overcoming obstacles to developing new analgesics. Nat Med 16(11):1241–1247
Tyers MB (1980) A classification of opiate receptors that mediate Antinociception in animals. Br J Pharmacol 69(3):503–512
Basbaum AI (1973) Conduction of the effects of noxious stimulation by short-fiber multisynaptic systems of the spinal cord in the rat. Exp Neurol 40(3):699–716
Hardy JD (1956) The nature of pain. J Chronic Dis 4(1):22–51
Le Bars D, Gozariu M, Cadden SW (2001) Animal models of nociception. Pharmacol Rev 53(4):597–652
Barrot M (2012) Tests and models of nociception and pain in rodents. Neuroscience 211:39–50
Deuis JR, Dvorakova LS, Vetter I (2017) Methods used to evaluate pain behaviors in rodents. Front Mol Neurosci 10:284
Taiwo YO, Coderre TJ, Levine JD (1989) The contribution of training to sensitivity in the nociceptive paw-withdrawal test. Brain Res 487(1):148–151
LaBuda CJ, Fuchs PN (2000) A behavioral test paradigm to measure the aversive quality of inflammatory and neuropathic pain in rats. Exp Neurol 163(2):490–494
Pitcher GM, Ritchie J, Henry JL (1999) Paw withdrawal threshold in the von Frey hair test is influenced by the surface on which the rat stands. J Neurosci Methods 87(2):185–193
Hargreaves K et al (1988) A new and sensitive method for measuring thermal nociception in cutaneous hyperalgesia. Pain 32(1):77–88
Cheah M, Fawcett JW, Andrews MR (2017) Assessment of thermal pain sensation in rats and mice using the Hargreaves test. Bio Protoc 7(16):e2506
Santos ARS, Calixto JB (1997) Further evidence for the involvement of tachykinin receptor subtypes in formalin and capsaicin models of pain in mice. Neuropeptides 31(4):381–389
Langford DJ et al (2010) Coding of facial expressions of pain in the laboratory mouse. Nat Methods 7(6):447–449
Neubert JK et al (2008) Characterization of mouse orofacial pain and the effects of lesioning TRPV1-expressing neurons on operant behavior. Mol Pain 4:43
Nolan TA et al (2012) Placebo-induced analgesia in an operant pain model in rats. Pain 153(10):2009–2016
Mauderli AP, Acosta-Rua A, Vierck CJ (2000) An operant assay of thermal pain in conscious, unrestrained rats. J Neurosci Methods 97(1):19–29
Dolan JC et al (2010) The dolognawmeter: a novel instrument and assay to quantify nociception in rodent models of orofacial pain. J Neurosci Methods 187(2):207–215
Rohrs EL et al (2015) A novel operant-based behavioral assay of mechanical allodynia in the orofacial region of rats. J Neurosci Methods 248:1–6
Neubert JK et al (2005) Use of a novel thermal operant behavioral assay for characterization of orofacial pain sensitivity. Pain 116(3):386–395
Andrews K, Fitzgerald M (1994) The cutaneous withdrawal reflex in human neonates: sensitization, receptive fields, and the effects of contralateral stimulation. Pain 56(1):95–101
Andersen OK et al (2005) Gradual enlargement of human withdrawal reflex receptive fields following repetitive painful stimulation. Brain Res 1042(2):194–204
Morch CD et al (2007) Nociceptive withdrawal reflexes evoked by uniform-temperature laser heat stimulation of large skin areas in humans. J Neurosci Methods 160(1):85–92
Basbaum AI et al (2009) Cellular and molecular mechanisms of pain. Cell 139(2):267–284
Besson JM (1999) The neurobiology of pain. Lancet 353(9164):1610–1615
Dubner R, Gold M (1999) The neurobiology of pain. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 96(14):7627–7630
Huggins JP et al (2012) An efficient randomised, placebo-controlled clinical trial with the irreversible fatty acid amide hydrolase-1 inhibitor PF-04457845, which modulates endocannabinoids but fails to induce effective analgesia in patients with pain due to osteoarthritis of the knee. Pain 153(9):1837–1846
Hill R (2000) NK1 (substance P) receptor antagonists--why are they not analgesic in humans? Trends Pharmacol Sci 21(7):244–246
Negus SS et al (2006) Preclinical assessment of candidate analgesic drugs: recent advances and future challenges. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 319(2):507–514
Borsook D et al (2014) Lost but making progress--Where will new analgesic drugs come from? Sci Transl Med 6(249):249sr3
Yekkirala AS et al (2017) Breaking barriers to novel analgesic drug development. Nat Rev Drug Discov 16(8):545–564
Clark JD (2016) Preclinical pain research: can we do better? Anesthesiology 125(5):846–849
Yekkirala AS et al (2017) Breaking barriers to novel analgesic drug development. Nat Rev Drug Discov 16(11):810
Murthy SE et al (2018) The mechanosensitive ion channel Piezo2 mediates sensitivity to mechanical pain in mice. Sci Transl Med 10(462):eaat9897
Bourane S et al (2015) Identification of a spinal circuit for light touch and fine motor control. Cell 160(3):503–515
Cheng L et al (2017) Identification of spinal circuits involved in touch-evoked dynamic mechanical pain. Nat Neurosci 20(6):804–814
Liu Y et al (2018) Touch and tactile neuropathic pain sensitivity are set by corticospinal projections. Nature 561(7724):547–550
Dhandapani R et al (2018) Control of mechanical pain hypersensitivity in mice through ligand-targeted photoablation of TrkB-positive sensory neurons. Nat Commun 9(1):1640
Francois A et al (2015) The low-threshold Calcium Channel Cav3.2 determines low-threshold mechanoreceptor function. Cell Rep 10(3):370–382
Woo SH et al (2014) Piezo2 is required for Merkel-cell mechanotransduction. Nature 509(7502):622–626
Severson KS et al (2017) Active touch and self-motion encoding by Merkel cell-associated afferents. Neuron 94(3):666–676 e9
Douglass AD et al (2008) Escape behavior elicited by single, channelrhodopsin-2-evoked spikes in zebrafish somatosensory neurons. Curr Biol 18(15):1133–1137
Krupa DJ et al (2001) Behavioral properties of the trigeminal somatosensory system in rats performing whisker-dependent tactile discriminations. J Neurosci 21(15):5752–5763
May ES et al (2017) Behavioral responses to noxious stimuli shape the perception of pain. Sci Rep 7:44083
Browne LE et al (2017) Time-resolved fast mammalian behavior reveals the complexity of protective pain responses. Cell Rep 20(1):89–98
Arcourt A et al (2017) Touch receptor-derived sensory information alleviates acute pain signaling and fine-tunes nociceptive reflex coordination. Neuron 93(1):179–193
Blivis D et al (2017) Identification of a novel spinal nociceptive-motor gate control for Adelta pain stimuli in rats. Elife 6:e23584
Abdus-Saboor I et al (2019) Development of a mouse pain scale using sub-second behavioral mapping and statistical modeling. Cell Rep 28(6):1623–1634 e4
Madisen L et al (2012) A toolbox of Cre-dependent optogenetic transgenic mice for light-induced activation and silencing. Nat Neurosci 15(5):793–802
Olson W et al (2017) Sparse genetic tracing reveals regionally specific functional organization of mammalian nociceptors. Elife 6:e29507
Cavanaugh DJ et al (2011) Trpv1 reporter mice reveal highly restricted brain distribution and functional expression in arteriolar smooth muscle cells. J Neurosci 31(13):5067–5077
Kim YS et al (2016) Coupled activation of primary sensory neurons contributes to chronic pain. Neuron 91(5):1085–1096
Anderson M, Zheng Q, Dong X (2018) Investigation of pain mechanisms by calcium imaging approaches. Neurosci Bull 34(1):194–199
Han L et al (2018) Mrgprs on vagal sensory neurons contribute to bronchoconstriction and airway hyper-responsiveness. Nat Neurosci 21(3):324–328
Dixon WJ (1980) Efficient analysis of experimental observations. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 20:441–462
Chaplan SR et al (1994) Quantitative assessment of tactile allodynia in the rat paw. J Neurosci Methods 53(1):55–63
Woolf CJ (1983) Evidence for a central component of post-injury pain hypersensitivity. Nature 306(5944):686–688
Daou I et al (2013) Remote optogenetic activation and sensitization of pain pathways in freely moving mice. J Neurosci 33(47):18631–18640
Husson SJ et al (2012) Optogenetic analysis of a nociceptor neuron and network reveals ion channels acting downstream of primary sensors. Curr Biol 22(9):743–752
Carr FB, Zachariou V (2014) Nociception and pain: lessons from optogenetics. Front Behav Neurosci 8:69
Corder G et al (2017) Loss of mu opioid receptor signaling in nociceptors, but not microglia, abrogates morphine tolerance without disrupting analgesia. Nat Med 23(2):164–173
Corder G et al (2019) An amygdalar neural ensemble that encodes the unpleasantness of pain. Science 363(6424):276–281
Ringner M (2008) What is principal component analysis? Nat Biotechnol 26(3):303–304
Tarca AL et al (2007) Machine learning and its applications to biology. PLoS Comput Biol 3(6):e116
Duan B et al (2014) Identification of spinal circuits transmitting and gating mechanical pain. Cell 159(6):1417–1432
Stemkowski P et al (2016) TRPV1 nociceptor activity initiates USP5/T-type channel-mediated plasticity. Cell Rep 17(11):2901–2912
Sophia V et al (2013) Genetic identification of C fibres that detect massage-like stroking of hairy skin in vivo. Nature 493(7434):669–673
Huang T et al (2019) Identifying the pathways required for coping behaviours associated with sustained pain. Nature 565(7737):86–90
Beaudry H et al (2017) Distinct behavioral responses evoked by selective optogenetic stimulation of the major TRPV1+ and MrgD+ subsets of C-fibers. Pain 158(12):2329–2339
Bennett GJ, Xie YK (1988) A peripheral mononeuropathy in rat that produces disorders of pain sensation like those seen in man. Pain 33(1):87–107
De Vry J et al (2004) Pharmacological characterization of the chronic constriction injury model of neuropathic pain. Eur J Pharmacol 491(2–3):137–148
Hogan Q et al (2004) Detection of neuropathic pain in a rat model of peripheral nerve injury. Anesthesiology 101(2):476–487
Kim SH, Chung JM (1992) An experimental model for peripheral neuropathy produced by segmental spinal nerve ligation in the rat. Pain 50(3):355–363
Chung JM, Kim HK, Chung K (2004) Segmental spinal nerve ligation model of neuropathic pain. Methods Mol Med 99:35–45
Shields SD, Eckert WA 3rd, Basbaum AI (2003) Spared nerve injury model of neuropathic pain in the mouse: a behavioral and anatomic analysis. J Pain 4(8):465–470
Malmberg AB, Basbaum AI (1998) Partial sciatic nerve injury in the mouse as a model of neuropathic pain: behavioral and neuroanatomical correlates. Pain 76(1–2):215–222
Seltzer Z, Dubner R, Shir Y (1990) A novel behavioral model of neuropathic pain disorders produced in rats by partial sciatic nerve injury. Pain 43(2):205–218
Lindenlaub T, Sommer C (2000) Partial sciatic nerve transection as a model of neuropathic pain: a qualitative and quantitative neuropathological study. Pain 89(1):97–106
Djouhri L et al (2006) Spontaneous pain, both neuropathic and inflammatory, is related to frequency of spontaneous firing in intact C-fiber nociceptors. J Neurosci 26(4):1281–1292
Prkachin KM (1992) Dissociating spontaneous and deliberate expressions of pain: signal detection analyses. Pain 51(1):57–65
Ma L et al (2019) Spontaneous pain disrupts ventral hippocampal CA1-Infralimbic cortex connectivity and modulates pain progression in rats with peripheral inflammation. Cell Rep 29(6):1579–1593 e6
Baliki MN et al (2006) Chronic pain and the emotional brain: specific brain activity associated with spontaneous fluctuations of intensity of chronic back pain. J Neurosci 26(47):12165–12173
Geha PY et al (2007) Brain activity for spontaneous pain of postherpetic neuralgia and its modulation by lidocaine patch therapy. Pain 128(1–2):88–100
Qu C et al (2011) Lesion of the rostral anterior cingulate cortex eliminates the aversiveness of spontaneous neuropathic pain following partial or complete axotomy. Pain 152(7):1641–1648
Parks EL et al (2011) Brain activity for chronic knee osteoarthritis: dissociating evoked pain from spontaneous pain. Eur J Pain 15(8):843 e1–14
Foss JM, Apkarian AV, Chialvo DR (2006) Dynamics of pain: fractal dimension of temporal variability of spontaneous pain differentiates between pain states. J Neurophysiol 95(2):730–736
Haroutounian S et al (2014) Primary afferent input critical for maintaining spontaneous pain in peripheral neuropathy. Pain 155(7):1272–1279
King T et al (2011) Contribution of afferent pathways to nerve injury-induced spontaneous pain and evoked hypersensitivity. Pain 152(9):1997–2005
Tuttle AH et al (2018) A deep neural network to assess spontaneous pain from mouse facial expressions. Mol Pain 14:1744806918763658
Wiltschko AB et al (2015) Mapping sub-second structure in mouse behavior. Neuron 88(6):1121–1135
Sperry MM et al (2018) Grading facial expression is a sensitive means to detect grimace differences in orofacial pain in a rat model. Sci Rep 8(1):13894
Rossi HL et al (2020) Evoked and spontaneous pain assessment during tooth pulp injury. Sci Rep 10(1):2759
Leach MC et al (2012) The assessment of post-vasectomy pain in mice using behaviour and the mouse grimace scale. PLoS One 7(4):e35656
Matsumiya LC et al (2012) Using the mouse grimace scale to reevaluate the efficacy of postoperative analgesics in laboratory mice. J Am Assoc Lab Anim Sci 51(1):42–49
Sotocinal SG et al (2011) The rat grimace scale: a partially automated method for quantifying pain in the laboratory rat via facial expressions. Mol Pain 7:55
Miller A et al (2015) The effect of isoflurane anaesthesia and buprenorphine on the mouse grimace scale and behaviour in CBA and DBA/2 mice. Appl Anim Behav Sci 172:58–62
Oliver V et al (2014) Psychometric assessment of the rat grimace scale and development of an analgesic intervention score. PLoS One 9(5):e97882
Akintola T et al (2017) The grimace scale reliably assesses chronic pain in a rodent model of trigeminal neuropathic pain. Neurobiol Pain 2:13–17
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding authors
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2022 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature
About this protocol
Cite this protocol
Abdus-Saboor, I., Luo, W. (2022). Measuring Mouse Somatosensory Reflexive Behaviors with High-Speed Videography, Statistical Modeling, and Machine Learning. In: Seal, R.P. (eds) Contemporary Approaches to the Study of Pain. Neuromethods, vol 178. Humana, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-2039-7_21
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-2039-7_21
Published:
Publisher Name: Humana, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-0716-2038-0
Online ISBN: 978-1-0716-2039-7
eBook Packages: Springer Protocols