Skip to main content

An Overview of Helicobacter pylori Infection

  • Protocol
  • First Online:
Helicobacter Pylori

Part of the book series: Methods in Molecular Biology ((MIMB,volume 2283))

Abstract

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) represents one of the most widespread bacterial infections globally. Infection causes chronic gastritis and increases the risk of peptic ulcer disease, gastric adenocarcinoma, and mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma. The pioneering discovery of H. pylori by Marshall and Warren in the early 1980s has initiated fervent research into H. pylori as a pathogen ever since. This chapter aims to provide an overview of our understanding of H. pylori infection and its management, with a focus on current options for diagnosis, the challenges associated with H. pylori eradication, and the need for alternative therapeutic strategies based on furthering our understanding of host: H. pylori interactions.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Protocol
USD 49.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 89.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 119.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Salama NR, Hartung ML, Muller A (2013) Life in the human stomach: persistence strategies of the bacterial pathogen Helicobacter pylori. Nat Rev Microbiol 11:385–399

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  2. Fallone CA, Chiba N, van Zanten SV et al (2016) The Toronto consensus for the treatment of Helicobacter pylori infection in adults. Gastroenterology 151:51–69

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. McColl KE (2010) Clinical practice. Helicobacter pylori infection. N Engl J Med 362:1597–1604

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Plummer M, Franceschi S, Vignat J et al (2015) Global burden of gastric cancer attributable to Helicobacter pylori. Int J Cancer 136:487–490

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Marshall B, Warren JR (1984) Unidentified curved bacilli in the stomach of patients with gastritis and peptic ulceration. Lancet 323:1311–1315

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Marshall BJ, Armstrong JA, McGechie DB et al (1985) Attempt to fulfil Koch's postulates for pyloric Campylobacter. Med J Aust 142:436–439

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Smith SM (2014) Role of Toll-like receptors in Helicobacter pylori infection and immunity. World J Gastrointest Pathophysiol 5:133–146

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  8. Pachathundikandi SK, Müller A, Backert S (2016) Inflammasome activation by Helicobacter pylori and its implications for persistence and immunity. In: Backert S (ed) Inflammasome signaling and bacterial infections. Springer, Cham, Switzerland, pp 117–131

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  9. Matos JI, de Sousa HA, Marcos-Pinto R et al (2013) Helicobacter pylori CagA and VacA genotypes and gastric phenotype: a meta-analysis. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 25:1431–1441

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Salimzadeh L, Bagheri N, Zamanzad B et al (2015) Frequency of virulence factors in Helicobacter pylori-infected patients with gastritis. Microb Pathogen 80:67–72

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Razavi A, Bagheri N, Azadegan-Dehkordi F et al (2015) Comparative immune response in children and adults with H. pylori infection. J. Immunol Res 2015:315957

    Google Scholar 

  12. Eusebi LH, Zagari RM, Bazzoli F (2014) Epidemiology of Helicobacter pylori infection. Helicobacter 19:1–5

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Bui D, Brown HE, Harris RB et al (2016) Serologic evidence for fecal–oral transmission of Helicobacter pylori. Am J Trop Med Hyg 94:82–88

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  14. Leja M, Axon A, Brenner H (2016) Epidemiology of Helicobacter pylori infection. Helicobacter 21:3–7

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Aziz RK, Khalifa MM, Sharaf RR (2015) Contaminated water as a source of Helicobacter pylori infection: a review. J Adv Res 6:539–547

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Chakrani Z, Robinson K, Taye B (2018) Association between ABO blood groups and Helicobacter pylori infection: a meta-analysis. Sci Rep 8:17,604

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Hooi JKY, Lai WY, Ng WK et al (2017) Global prevalence of Helicobacter pylori infection: systematic review and meta-analysis. Gastroenterology 153:420–429

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. van Blankenstein M, van Vuuren AJ, Looman CW et al (2013) The prevalence of Helicobacter pylori infection in the Netherlands. Scand J Gastroenterol 48:794–800

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Bastos J, Peleteiro B, Barros R et al (2013) Sociodemographic determinants of prevalence and incidence of Helicobacter pylori infection in Portuguese adults. Helicobacter 18:413–422

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Lim SH, Kwon J-W, Kim N et al (2013) Prevalence and risk factors of Helicobacter pylori infection in Korea: nationwide multicenter study over 13 years. BMC Gastroenterol 13:104

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  21. Zhu Y, Zhou X, Wu J et al (2014) Risk factors and prevalence of Helicobacter pylori infection in persistent high incidence area of gastric carcinoma in Yangzhong city. Gastroenterol Res Pract 2014:481365

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  22. Pan K-F, Zhang L, Gerhard M et al (2015) A large randomized controlled intervention trial to prevent gastric cancer by eradication of Helicobacter pylori in Linqu County, China: baseline results and factors affecting the eradication. Gut 65:9–18

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Mathewos B, Moges B, Dagnew M (2013) Seroprevalence and trend of Helicobacter pylori infection in Gondar University Hospital among dyspeptic patients, Gondar, North West Ethiopia. BMC Res Notes 6:346

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  24. Alvarado-Esquivel C (2013) Seroepidemiology of Helicobacter pylori infection in pregnant women in rural Durango, Mexico. Int J Biomed Sci 9:224

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  25. Brennan DE, Omorogbe J, Hussey M et al (2016) Molecular detection of Helicobacter pylori antibiotic resistance in stool vs biopsy samples. World J Gastroenterol 22:9214–9221

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  26. Wang Y-K, Kuo F-C, Liu C-J et al (2015) Diagnosis of Helicobacter pylori infection: Current options and developments. World J Gastroenterol 21:11221

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  27. Malfertheiner P, Megraud F, O’Morain CA et al (2017) Management of Helicobacter pylori infection-the Maastricht V/Florence Consensus Report. Gut 66:6–30

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Malfertheiner P, Megraud F, O’Morain C et al (1997) Current European concepts in the management of Helicobacter pylori infection-the Maastricht Consensus Report. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 9(1):1–2

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Smith SM, Haider RB, O’Connor H et al (2014) Practical treatment of Helicobacter pylori: a balanced view in changing times. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 26:819–825

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Chey WD, Leontiadis GI, Howden CW et al (2017) ACG clinical guideline: treatment of Helicobacter pylori infection. Am J Gastroenterol 112:212–239

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Thung I, Aramin H, Vavinskaya V et al (2016) The global emergence of Helicobacter pylori antibiotic resistance. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 43:514–533

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Megraud F, Coenen S, Versporten A et al (2013) Helicobacter pylori resistance to antibiotics in Europe and its relationship to antibiotic consumption. Gut 62:34–42

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Smith SM (2015) An update on the treatment of Helicobacter pylori infection. EMJ Gastroenterol 4:101–107

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Smith SM, O’Morain C, McNamara D (2019) Helicobacter pylori resistance to current therapies. Curr Opin Gastroenterol 35:6–13

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Zhang X, Arnold IC, Muller A (2020) Mechanisms of persistence, innate immune activation and immunomodulation by the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori. Curr Opin Microbiol 54:1–10

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Whitney AE, Emory TS, Marty AM et al (2000) Increased macrophage infiltration of gastric mucosa in Helicobacter pylori-infected children. Dig Dis Sci 45:1337–1342

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Suzuki T, Kato K, Ohara S et al (2002) Localization of antigen-presenting cells in Helicobacter pylori-infected gastric mucosa. Pathol Int 52:265–271

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Cherdantseva LA, Potapova OV, Sharkova TV et al (2014) Association of Helicobacter pylori and iNOS production by macrophages and lymphocytes in the gastric mucosa in chronic gastritis. J Immunol Res 2014:762514

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Xia HH, Lam SK, Huang XR et al (2004) Helicobacter pylori infection is associated with increased expression of macrophage migratory inhibitory factor-by epithelial cells, T cells, and macrophages-in gastric mucosa. J Infect Dis 190:293–302

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Smith SM, Moran AP, Duggan SP et al (2011) Tribbles 3: a novel regulator of TLR2-mediated signaling in response to Helicobacter pylori lipopolysaccharide. J Immunol 186:2462–2471

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Wen S, Felley CP, Bouzourene H et al (2004) Inflammatory gene profiles in gastric mucosa during Helicobacter pylori infection in humans. J Immunol 172:2595–2606

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Marcos NT, Magalhaes A, Ferreira B et al (2008) Helicobacter pylori induces beta3GnT5 in human gastric cell lines, modulating expression of the SabA ligand sialyl-Lewis x. J Clin Invest 118:2325–2336

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  43. Kusugami K, Ando T, Ohsuga M et al (1997) Mucosal chemokine activity in Helicobacter pylori infection. J Clin Gastroenterol 25(Suppl 1):S203–S210

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Yamaoka Y, Kita M, Kodama T et al (1998) Chemokines in the gastric mucosa in Helicobacter pylori infection. Gut 42:609–617

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  45. Suzuki H, Mori M, Sakaguchi AA et al (1998) Enhanced levels of C-X-C chemokine, human GROalpha, in Helicobacter pylori-associated gastric disease. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 13:516–520

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Wu YY, Tsai HF, Lin WC et al (2007) Upregulation of CCL20 and recruitment of CCR6+ gastric infiltrating lymphocytes in Helicobacter pylori gastritis. Infect Immun 75:4357–4363

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  47. Tran LS, Chonwerawong M, Ferrero RL (2017) Regulation and functions of inflammasome-mediated cytokines in Helicobacter pylori infection. Microbes Infect 19:449–458

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Keenan J, Day T, Neal S et al (2000) A role for the bacterial outer membrane in the pathogenesis of Helicobacter pylori infection. FEMS Microbiol Lett 182:259–264

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Olofsson A, Vallstrom A, Petzold K et al (2010) Biochemical and functional characterization of Helicobacter pylori vesicles. Mol Microbiol 77:1539–1555

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  50. Mullaney E, Brown PA, Smith SM et al (2009) Proteomic and functional characterization of the outer membrane vesicles from the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori. Proteomics Clin Appl 3:785–796

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Grubman A, Kaparakis M, Viala J et al (2010) The innate immune molecule, NOD1, regulates direct killing of Helicobacter pylori by antimicrobial peptides. Cell Microbiol 12:626–639

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Rad R, Ballhorn W, Voland P et al (2009) Extracellular and intracellular pattern recognition receptors cooperate in the recognition of Helicobacter pylori. Gastroenterology 136:2247–2257

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Basu S, Pathak SK, Chatterjee G (2008) Helicobacter pylori protein HP0175 transactivates epidermal growth factor receptor through TLR4 in gastric epithelial cells. J Biol Chem 283:32,369–32,376

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Mandell L, Moran AP, Cocchiarella A et al (2004) Intact gram-negative Helicobacter pylori, Helicobacter felis, and Helicobacter hepaticus bacteria activate innate immunity via toll-like receptor 2 but not toll-like receptor 4. Infect Immun 72:6446–6454

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  55. Torok AM, Bouton AH, Goldberg JB (2005) Helicobacter pylori induces interleukin-8 secretion by Toll-like receptor 2- and Toll-like receptor 5-dependent and -independent pathways. Infect Immun 73:1523–1531

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  56. Smith MF Jr, Mitchell A, Li G et al (2003) Toll-like receptor (TLR) 2 and TLR5, but not TLR4, are required for Helicobacter pylori-induced NF-kappa B activation and chemokine expression by epithelial cells. J Biol Chem 278:32,552–32,560

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Pachathundikandi SK, Lind J, Tegtmeyer N et al (2015) Interplay of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori with Toll-like receptors. Biomed Res Int 2015:192420

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Pachathundikandi SK, Tegtmeyer N, Arnold IC et al (2019) T4SS-dependent TLR5 activation by Helicobacter pylori infection. Nat Commun 10:5717

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  59. Ding SZ, Torok AM, Smith MF Jr et al (2005) Toll-like receptor 2-mediated gene expression in epithelial cells during Helicobacter pylori infection. Helicobacter 10:193–204

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Sayi A, Kohler E, Toller IM et al (2011) TLR-2-activated B cells suppress Helicobacter-induced preneoplastic gastric immunopathology by inducing T regulatory-1 cells. J Immunol 186:878–890

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Pachathundikandi SK, Brandt S, Madassery J et al (2011) Induction of TLR-2 and TLR-5 expression by Helicobacter pylori switches cagPAI-dependent signalling leading to the secretion of IL-8 and TNF-alpha. PLoS One 6:e19614

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Kim DJ, Park JH, Franchi L et al (2013) The Cag pathogenicity island and interaction between TLR2/NOD2 and NLRP3 regulate IL-1beta production in Helicobacter pylori infected dendritic cells. Eur J Immunol 43:2650–2658

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  63. Koch KN, Muller A (2015) Helicobacter pylori activates the TLR2/NLRP3/caspase-1/IL-18 axis to induce regulatory T-cells, establish persistent infection and promote tolerance to allergens. Gut Microbes 6:382–387

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Koch KN, Hartung ML, Urban S et al (2015) Helicobacter urease-induced activation of the TLR2/NLRP3/IL-18 axis protects against asthma. J Clin Invest 125:3297–3302

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  65. Smith SM, Freeley M, Moynagh PN et al (2016, 2017) Differential modulation of Helicobacter pylori lipopolysaccharide-mediated TLR2 signaling by individual Pellino proteins. Helicobacter 22. https://doi.org/10.1111/hel.12325

  66. Neuper T, Frauenlob T, Sarajlic M et al (2020) TLR2, TLR4 and TLR10 shape the cytokine and chemokine release of H. pylori-infected human DCs. Int J Mol Sci 21:3897

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  67. Takenaka R, Yokota K, Ayada K et al (2004) Helicobacter pylori heat-shock protein 60 induces inflammatory responses through the Toll-like receptor-triggered pathway in cultured human gastric epithelial cells. Microbiology 150(Pt 12):3913–3922

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Zhao Y, Yokota K, Ayada K et al (2007) Helicobacter pylori heat-shock protein 60 induces interleukin-8 via a Toll-like receptor (TLR)2 and mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase pathway in human monocytes. J Med Microbiol 56:154–164

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Amedei A, Cappon A, Codolo G et al (2006) The neutrophil-activating protein of Helicobacter pylori promotes Th1 immune responses. J Clin Invest 116:1092–1101

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  70. McClain MS, Voss BJ, Cover TL (2020) Lipoprotein processing and sorting in Helicobacter pylori. mBio 11:e00911–e00920

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  71. Melit LE, Marginean CO, Marginean CD et al (2019) The relationship between Toll-like receptors and Helicobacter pylori-related gastropathies: still a controversial topic. J Immunol Res 2019:8197048

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Chochi K, Ichikura T, Kinoshita M et al (2008) Helicobacter pylori augments growth of gastric cancers via the lipopolysaccharide-toll-like receptor 4 pathway whereas its lipopolysaccharide attenuates antitumor activities of human mononuclear cells. Clin Cancer 14:2909–2917

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Ishihara S, Rumi MA, Kadowaki Y et al (2004) Essential role of MD-2 in TLR4-dependent signaling during Helicobacter pylori-associated gastritis. J Immunol 173:1406–1416

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Kawahara T, Teshima S, Oka A et al (2001) Type I Helicobacter pylori lipopolysaccharide stimulates toll-like receptor 4 and activates mitogen oxidase 1 in gastric pit cells. Infect Immun 69:4382–4389

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  75. Cullen TW, Giles DK, Wolf LN et al (2011) Helicobacter pylori versus the host: remodeling of the bacterial outer membrane is required for survival in the gastric mucosa. PLoS Pathog 7:e1002454

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  76. Su B, Ceponis PJ, Lebel S et al (2003) Helicobacter pylori activates Toll-like receptor 4 expression in gastrointestinal epithelial cells. Infect Immun 71:3496–3502

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  77. Lepper PM, Triantafilou M, Schumann C et al (2005) Lipopolysaccharides from Helicobacter pylori can act as antagonists for Toll-like receptor 4. Cell Microbiol 7:519–528

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Triantafilou M, Gamper FG, Lepper PM et al (2007) Lipopolysaccharides from atherosclerosis-associated bacteria antagonize TLR4, induce formation of TLR2/1/CD36 complexes in lipid rafts and trigger TLR2-induced inflammatory responses in human vascular endothelial cells. Cell Microbiol 9:2030–2039

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Yokota S, Ohnishi T, Muroi M et al (2007) Highly-purified Helicobacter pylori LPS preparations induce weak inflammatory reactions and utilize Toll-like receptor 2 complex but not Toll-like receptor 4 complex. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 51:140–148

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Nagashima H, Iwatani S, Cruz M et al (2015) Toll-like receptor 10 in Helicobacter pylori infection. J Infect Dis 212:1666–1676

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  81. Stein SC, Faber E, Bats SH et al (2017) Helicobacter pylori modulates host cell responses by CagT4SS-dependent translocation of an intermediate metabolite of LPS inner core heptose biosynthesis. PLoS Pathog 13:e1006514

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Zimmermann S, Pfannkuch L, Al-Zeer MA et al (2017) ALPK1- and TIFA-dependent innate immune response triggered by the Helicobacter pylori type IV secretion system. Cell Rep 20:2384–2395

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Gall A, Gaudet RG, Gray-Owen SD et al (2017) TIFA signaling in gastric epithelial cells initiates the cag type 4 secretion system-dependent innate immune response to Helicobacter pylori infection. mBio 8:e01168–e01117

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  84. Karkhah A, Ebrahimpour S, Rostamtabar M et al (2019) Helicobacter pylori evasion strategies of the host innate and adaptive immune responses to survive and develop gastrointestinal diseases. Microbiol Res 218:49–57

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Bagheri N, Salimzadeh L, Shirzad H (2018) The role of T helper 1-cell response in Helicobacter pylori-infection. Microb Pathog 123:1–8

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Zheng PY, Jones NL (2003) Helicobacter pylori strains expressing the vacuolating cytotoxin interrupt phagosome maturation in macrophages by recruiting and retaining TACO (coronin 1) protein. Cell Microbiol 5:25–40

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Gebert B, Fischer W, Weiss E et al (2003) Helicobacter pylori vacuolating cytotoxin inhibits T lymphocyte activation. Science 301:1099–1102

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Mirzaei N, Poursina F, Moghim S et al (2017) The study of H. pylori putative candidate factors for single-and multi-component vaccine development. Crit Rev Microbiol 43:631–650

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Lehours P, Ferrero RL (2019) Review: Helicobacter: inflammation, immunology, and vaccines. Helicobacter 24:e12644

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Guo L, Yang H, Tang F et al (2017) Oral immunization with a multivalent epitope-based vaccine, based on NAP, urease, HSP60, and HpaA, provides therapeutic effect on H. pylori infection in mongolian gerbils. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 7:349

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Zeng M, Mao X-H, Li J-X et al (2015) Efficacy, safety, and immunogenicity of an oral recombinant Helicobacter pylori vaccine in children in China: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial. Lancet 386:1457–1464

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

Support is acknowledged from the Health Research Board and a Trinity College Dublin Provost PhD Award.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sinéad M. Smith .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2021 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature

About this protocol

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this protocol

FitzGerald, R., Smith, S.M. (2021). An Overview of Helicobacter pylori Infection. In: Smith, S.M. (eds) Helicobacter Pylori. Methods in Molecular Biology, vol 2283. Humana, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1302-3_1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1302-3_1

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Humana, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-0716-1301-6

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-0716-1302-3

  • eBook Packages: Springer Protocols

Publish with us

Policies and ethics