Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Genetics of Flower Color

  • Chapter
Petunia

Abstract

With nearly a century of excellent research on the biochemistry and inheritance of color, and the corresponding development of incredible genetic resources, Petunia has offered perhaps the best genetic system for molecular analysis of flower color. The knowledge and materials available to the Petunia geneticist, together with the tools of genetic engineering, have allowed for the isolation and characterization of a large number of genes affecting flower color, including those encoding biosynthetic enzymes, regulators of their expression, and vacuolar function. Here we summarize current knowledge about the genes responsible for the amazing diversity of colors and color patterns observable in the genus Petunia and propose some evolutionary implications of these findings.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Alfenito, M.R., Souer, E., Goodman, C.D., Buell, R., Mol, J., Koes, R. and Walbot, V. (1998) Functional complementation of anthocyanin sequestration in the vacuole by widely divergent glutathione S-transferases. Plant Cell 10, 1135–1149.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ando, T., Takahashi, M., Nakajima, T., Toya, Y., Watanabe, H., Kokubun, H. and Tatsuzawa, F. (2004) Delphinidin accumulation is associated with abnormal flower development in Petunias. Phytochem. 65, 2219–2227.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Baumann, K., Perez-Rodriguez, M., Bradley, D., Venail, J., Bailey, P., Hailing, J., Koes, R., Roberts, K. and Martin, C. (2007) Control of cell and petal morphogenesis by R2R3 MYB transcription factors. Development 134, 1691–1701.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beld, M., Martin, C., Huits, H., Stuitje, A.R. and Gerats, A.G.M. (1989) Flavonoid synthesis in Petunia hybrida: Partial characterization of dihydroflavonol 4-reductase genes. Plant Mol. Biol. 13, 491–502.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Britsch, L. and Grisebach, H. (1986) Purification and characterization of (2S)-flavanone 3-hydroxylase from Petunia hybrida. Eur. J. Biochem. 156, 569–577.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Britsch, L., Ruhnau-Brich, B. and Forkmann, G. (1992). Molecular cloning, sequence analysis and in vitro expression of flavanone 3ß-hydroxylase from Petunia hybrida. J. Biol. Chem. 267, 5380–5387.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brugliera, F., Holton, T.A., Stevenson, T.W., Farcy, E., Lu, C.Y. and Cornish, E.C. (1994) Isolation and characterization of a cDNA clone corresponding to the Rt locus of Petunia hybrida. Plant J. 5, 81–92.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brugliera, F., Barri-Rewell, G., Holton, T.A. and Mason, J.G. (1999) Isolation and characterization of a flavonoid 3'-hydroxylase cDNA clone corresponding to the Ht1 locus of Petunia hybrida. Plant J. 19, 441–451.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brugliera, F., Tull, D., Holton, T.A., Karan, M., Treloar, N., Simpson, K., Skurczynska, J. and Mason, J.G. (2000) Introduction of a cytochrome b5 enhances the activity of flavonoid 3',5'-hydroxylase (a cytochrome P450) in transgenic carnation. Intl. Plant Molec. Biol. Rep. 18 (Supp.).

    Google Scholar 

  • Davies, K.M., Bloor, S.J., Spiller, G.B. and Deroles, S.C. (1998) Production of yellow colour in flowers: Redirection of flavonoid biosynthesis in Petunia. Plant J. 13, 259–266.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • de Vetten, N., Quattrocchio, F., Mol, J. and Koes, R. (1997) The an11 locus controlling flower pigmentation in Petunia encodes a novel WD-repeat protein conserved in yeast, plants and animals. Genes Dev. 11, 1422–1434.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • de Vetten, N., ter Horst, J., van Schaik, H.-P., den Boer, B., Mol, J. and Koes, R. (1999) A cytochome b5 is required for full activity of flavonoid 3'5'-hydroxylase, a cytochrome P450 involved in the formation of blue flower colors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., USA 96, 778–783.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Vlaming, P., Cornu, A., Farcy, E., Gerats, A.G.M., Maizonnier, D., Wiering, H. and Wijsman, H.J.W. (1984) Petunia hybrida: A short description of the action of 91 genes, their origin and their map location. Plant Mol. Biol. Rep. 2, 21–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dixon, R.A., Blyden, E.R., Robbins, M.P., van Tunen, A.J. and Mol, J.N.M. (1988) Comparative biochemistry of chalcone isomerases. Phytochem. 27, 2801–2808.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dooner, H.K., Robbins, T. and Jorgensen, R. (1991) Genetic and developmental control of anthocyanin biosynthesis. Annu. Rev. Genet. 25, 173–199.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Forkmann, G., de Vlaming, P., Spribille, R., Wiering, H. and Schram, A.W. (1986) Genetic and biochemical studies on the conversion of dihydroflavonols to flavonols in flowers of Petunia hybrida. Z. Naturforsch. 41c, 179–186.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forkmann, G. and Martens, S. (2001) Metabolic engeneering and applications of flavonoids. Curr. Opin. Biotech. 12, 155–160.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Froemel, S., de Vlaming, P., Stotz, G., Wiering, H., Forkmann, G. and Schram, A.W. (1985) Genetic and biochemical studies on the conversion of flavanones to dihydroflavonols in flowers of Petunia hybrida Theor. Appl. Genet. 70, 561–568.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gerats, A.G.M., De Vlaming, P., Doodeman, M. and Schram, A.W. (1982) Genetic control of the conversion of dihydroflavonols into flavonols and anthocyanins in flowers of Petunia hybrida. Planta 155, 364–368.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gerats, A.G.M., Wallroth, M., Donker-Koopman, W., Groot, S.P.C. and Schram, A.W. (1983) The genetic control of the enzyme UDP glucose flavonoid 3-O-glucosyltransferase in flowers of Petunia hybrida. Theor. Appl. Genet. 65, 349–352.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gerats, A.G.M., Farcy, E., Wallroth, M., Groot, S.P.C. and Schram, A. (1984) Control of anthocyanin biosynthesis in Petunia hybrida by multiple allelic series of the genes An1 and An2. Genetics 106, 501–508.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heller, W. and Forkmann, G. (1988) Biosynthesis. In: J.B. Harborne (Ed.), The Flavonoids. Chapman and Hall, London, pp. 399–425.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holton, T.A., Brugliera, F. and Tanaka, Y. (1993a) Cloning and expression of flavonol synthase from Petunia hybrida. Plant J. 4, 1003–1010.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holton, T.A., Brugliera, F., Lester, D.R., Tanaka, Y., Hyland, G.D., Menting, J.G.T., Lu, C.-Y., Farcy, E., Stevenson, T.W. and Cornish, E.C. (1993b) Cloning and expression of cytochrome P450 genes controlling flower colour. Nature 336, 276–279.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holton, T.A. and Cornish, E.C. (1995) Genetics and biochemistry of anthocyanin biosynthesis. Plant Cell 7, 1071–1083.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hondo, T., Yoshida, K., Nakagawa, A., Kawai, T., Tamura, H. and Goto, T. (1992) Structural basis of blue-color development in flower petals from Commelina communis, Nature 358, 515–518.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huits, H. (1993) Mutable Genes and Control of Flower Pigmentation in Petunia hybrida. Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huits, H.S.M., Gerats, A.G.M., Kreike, M.M., Mol, J.N.M. and Koes, R.E. (1994) Genetic control of dihydroflavonol 4-reductase gene expression in Petunia hybrida. Plant J. 6, 295–310.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jonsson, L.M.V., de Vlaming, P., Wiering, H., Aarsman, M.E.G. and Schram, A.W. (1983) Genetic control of anthocyanin-O-methyltransferase in flowers of Petunia hybrida, Theor. Appl. Genet. 66, 349.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jonsson, L.M.V., Aarsman, M.E.G., Poulton, J.E. and Schram, A.W. (1984a) Properties and genetic control of four methyltransferases involved in methylation of anthocyanins in flowers of Petunia hybrida. Planta 160, 174.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jonsson, L.M.V., Aarsman, M.E.G., Van Diepen, J., Smit, N. and Schram, A.W. (1984b) Properties and genetic control of anthocyanidin 5-0-glucosyltransferase in flowers of Petunia hybrida. Planta 160, 341–347.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kitamura, S., Shikazono, N. and Tanaka, A. (2004) TRANSPARENT TESTA 19 is involved in the accumulation of both anthocyanins and proanthocyanidins in Arabidopsis. Plant J. 37, 104–114.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kitamura, S. (2006) Transport of Flavonoids. In: E. Grotewold (Ed.), The Science of Flavonoids. Springer, NY, pp. 123–146.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Koes, R.E., Spelt, C.E., Mol, J.N.M. and Gerats, A.G.M. (1987) The chalcone synthase multigene family of Petunia hybrida (V30): Sequence homology, chromosomal localization and evolutionary aspects. Plant Mol. Biol. 10, 375–385.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koes, R.E. (1988) Genes involved in flavonoid biosynthesis in Petunia hybrida: The chalcone synthase multigene family. Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koes, R.E., Spelt, C.E. and Mol, J.N.M. (1989a) The chalcone synthase multigene family of Petunia hybrida (V30): Differential, light-regulated expression during flower development and UV light induction. Plant Mol. Biol. 12, 213–225.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koes, R.E., Spelt, C.E., Van den Elzen, P.J.M. and Mol, J.N.M. (1989b) Cloning and molecular characterization of the chalcone synthase multigene family of Petunia hybrida. Gene 81, 245–257.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koes, R.E., Van Blokland, R., Quattrocchio, F., Van Tunen, A.J. and Mol, J.N.M. (1990) Chalcone synthase promoters in Petunia are active in pigmented and unpigmented cell types. Plant Cell 2, 379–392.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Koes, R.E., Quattrocchio, F. and Mol, J.N.M. (1994) The flavonoid biosynthetic pathway in plants: Function and evolution. BioEssays 16, 123–132.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Koes, R., Verweij, C.W. and Quattrocchio, F. (2005) Flavonoids: A colorful model for the regulation and evolution of biochemical pathways. Trends Plant Sci. 5, 236–242.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koseki, M., Goto, K., Masuta, C. and Kanazawa, A. (2005) The star-type color pattern in Petunia hybrida "Red Star” flowers is induced by sequence-specific degradation of chalcone synthase RNA. Plant Cell Physiol. 6, 1879–1883.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kroon, J., Souer, E., de Graaff, A., Xue, Y., Mol, J. and Koes, R. (1994) Cloning and structural analysis of the anthocyanin pigmentation locus Rt of Petunia hybrida: Characterization of insertion sequences in two mutant alleles. Plant J. 5, 69–80.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kroon, A.R. (2004) Transcription Regulation of the Anthocyanin Pathway in Petunia hybrida. Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maizonnier, D. and Moessner, A. (1979) Localization of the linkage groups on the seven chromosomes of the Petunia hybridagenome. Genetica 51(2), 143–148.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Matsubara, K., Kodama, H., Kokubun, H., Watanabe, H. and Ando, T. (2005) Two novel transposable elements in a cytochrome P450 gene govern anthocyanin biosynthesis of commercial petunias. Gene 358, 121–126.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, P., Heidmann, I., Forkmann, G. and Saedler, H. (1987) A new petunia flower colour generated by transformation of a mutant with a maize gene. Nature 330, 677–678.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mo, Y., Nagel, C. and Taylor, L.P. (1992) Biochemical complementation of chalcone synthase mutants defines a role for flavonols in functional pollen. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., USA 89, 7213–7217.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mol, J.N.M., Schram, A.W., de Vlaming, P., Gerats, A.G.M., Kreuzaler, F., Hahlbrock, K., Reif, H.J. and Veltkamp, E. (1983) Regulation of flavonoid gene expression in Petunia hybrida: Description and partial characterization of a conditional mutant in chalcone synthase gene expression. Molec. Gen. Genet.192, 424–429.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mol, J., Cornish, E., Mason, J. and Koes, R. (1999) Novel coloured flowers. Curr. Opin. Biotech. 10, 198–201.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mueller, L.A., Goodman, C.D., Silady, R.A. and Walbot, V. (2000) AN9, a Petunia glutathione S-transferase required for anthocyanin sequestration, is a flavonoid-binding protein. Plant Physiol. 123, 1561–1570.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mur, L. (1995) Characterization of Members of the myb Gene Family of Transcription Factors from Petunia hybrida. Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nakajima, J., Tanaka, Y., Yamazaki, M. and Saito, K. (2001) Reaction mechanism from leucoanthocyanidin to anthocyanidin 3-glucoside, a key reaction for coloring in anthocyanin biosynthesis. J. Biol. Chem. 276, 25797–25803.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nakajima, T., Matsubara, K., Kodama, H., Kokubun, H., Watanabe, H. and Ando, T. (2005) Insertion and excision of a transposable element governs the red floral phenotype in commercial Petunia. Theor. Appl. Genet. 110, 1038–1043.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Napoli, C., Lemieux, C. and Jorgensen, R. (1990) Introduction of a chimeric chalcone synthase gene into petunia results in reversible co-suppression of homologous genes in trans. Plant Cell 2, 279–289.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Napoli, C.A., Fahy, D., Wang, H.Y. and Taylor, L.P. (1999) white anther: A petunia mutant that abolishes pollen flavonol accumulation, induces male sterility and is complemented by a chalcone synthase transgene. Plant Physiol. 120, 615–622.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Noda, K., Glover, B.J., Linstead, P. and Martin, C. (1994) Flower colour intensity depends on specialized cell shape controlled by a Myb-related transcription factor. Nature 369, 661–664.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oud, J.S.N., Schneiders, H., Kool, A.J. and van Grinsven, M.Q.J.M. (1995) Breeding of transgenic orange Petunia hybrida varieties. Euphyt. 85, 403–409.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pollak, P.E., Vogt, T., Mo, Y. and Taylor, L.P. (1993) Chalcone synthase and flavonol accumulation in stigmas and anthers of Petunia hybrida. Plant Physiol. 102, 925–932.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Quattrocchio, F., Wing, J.F., Leppen, H.T.C., Mol, J.N.M. and Koes, R.E. (1993) Regulatory genes controlling anthocyanin pigmentation are functionally conserved among plant species and have distinct sets of target genes. Plant Cell 5, 1497–1512.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Quattrocchio, F., Wing, J.F., van der Woude, K., Mol, J.N.M. and Koes, R. (1998) Analysis of bHLH and MYB-domain proteins: Species-specific regulatory differences are caused by divergent evolution of target anthocyanin genes. Plant J. 13, 475–488.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Quattrocchio, F., Wing, J., van der Woude, K., Souer, E., de Vetten, N., Mol, J. and Koes, R. (1999) Molecular analysis of the anthocyanin2 gene of Petunia and its role in the evolution of flower color. Plant Cell 11, 1433–1444.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Quattrocchio, F., Verweij, W., Kroon, A., Spelt, C., Mol, J. and Koes, R. (2006) PH4 of Petunia is an R2R3-MYB protein that activates vacuolar acidification through interactions with Basic-Helix-Loop-Helix transcription factors of the anthocyanin pathway. Plant Cell 18, 1274–1291.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Que, Q., Wang, H. and Jorgensen, R.A. (1998) Distinct patterns of pigment suppression are produced by allelic sense and antisense chalcone synthase transgenes in Petunia flowers. Plant J. 13, 401–409.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reif, J.H., Wiesbach, U., Deumling, B. and Saedler, H. (1985) Cloning and analysis of two genes for chalcone synthase from Petunia hybrida. Mol Gen. Genet. 199, 208–215.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shimada, Y., M., O., Nakano-Shimada, R., Okinaka, Y., Kiyokawa, S. and Kikuchi, Y. (2001) Genetic engineering of the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway with flavonoid-3',5'-hydroxylase: specific switching of the pathway in Petunia. Plant Cell Rep. 20, 456–462.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Snowden, K.C. and Napoli, C.A. (1998) PsI: a novel Spm-like transposable element from Petunia hybrida. Plant J. 14, 43–54.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sompornpailin, K., Makita, Y., Yamazaki, M. and Saito, K. (2002) A WD-repeat-containing putative regulatory protein in anthocyanin biosynthesis in Perilla frutescens. Plant Mol. Biol. 50, 485–495.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spelt, C., Quattrocchio, F., Mol, J. and Koes, R. (2000) anthocyanin1 of Petunia encodes a basic-Helix Loop Helix protein that directly activates structural anthocyanin genes. Plant Cell 12, 1619–1631.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spelt, C., Quattrocchio, F., Mol, J. and Koes, R. (2002) ANTHOCYANIN1 of Petunia controls pigment synthesis, vacuolar pH, and seed coat development by genetically distinct mechanisms. Plant Cell 14, 2121–2135.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stafford, A.H. (1974) Possible multiple enzyme complexes regulating the formation of C6–C3 phenolic compounds and lignuins in higher plants. Rec.Adv.Phytochem. 8, 53–79.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stafford, H. (1990) Flavonoid Metabolism. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stam, M.E. (1997). Post-transcriptional Silencing of Flower Pigmentation Genes in Petunia hybrida by (Trans)gene Repeats. Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stam, M., Mol, J.N.M. and Kooter, J.M. (1997) The silence of genes in transgenic plants. Ann. Bot. 79, 3–12.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tanaka, Y., Katsumoto, Y., Brugliera, F. and Mason, J. (2005) Genetic engineering in floriculture. Plant Cell, Tiss. Organ. Cult. 80, 1–24.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, L.P. and Jorgensen, R. (1992) Conditional male fertility in chalcone synthase-deficient Petunia. J. Hered. 83, 11–17.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tsuda, S., Fukui, Y., Nakamura, N., Katsumoto, Y., Yonekura-Sakakibara, K., Fukuchi-Mizutani, M., Ohira, K., Ueyama, Y., Ohkawa, H., Holton, T.H., Kusumi, T. and Tanaka, Y. (2004) Flower color modification of Petunia hybrida commercial varieties by metabolic engineering. Plant Biotech. 21, 377–386.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • van der Krol, A.R., Lenting, P.E., Veenstra, J., Van der Meer, I.M., Koes, R.E., Gerats, A.G.M., Mol, J.N.M. and Stuitje, A.R. (1988) An anti-sense chalcone synthase gene in transgenic plants inhibits flower pigmentation. Nature 333, 866–869.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van der Krol, A.R., Mur, L.A., Beld, M., Mol, J.N.M. and Stuitje, A.R. (1990) Flavonoid genes in Petunia: Addition of a limited number of gene copies may lead to a suppression of gene expression. Plant Cell 2, 291–299.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Houwelingen, A., Souer, E., Spelt, C., Kloos, D., Mol, J. and Koes, R. (1998) Analysis of flower pigmentation mutants generated by random transposon mutagenesis in Petunia hybrida. Plant J. 13, 39–50.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Tunen, A.J., Koes, R.E., Spelt, C.E., van der Krol, A.R., Stuitje, A.R. and Mol, J.N.M. (1988) Cloning of the two chalcone flavanone isomerase genes from Petunia hybrida: Coordinate, light-regulated and differential expression of flavonoid genes. EMBO J. 7, 1257–1263.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Tunen, A.J., Hartman, S.A., Mur, L.A. and Mol, J.N.M. (1989) Regulation of chalcone flavanone isomerase (CHI) gene expression in Petunia hybrida: The use of alternative promoters in corolla, anthers and pollen. Plant Mol. Biol. 12, 539–551.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van Tunen, A.J., Mur, L., Brouns, G.S., Rienstra, J.-D., Koes, R.E. and Mol, J.N.M. (1990) Pollen- and anther-specific chi promoters from Petunia: Tandem promoter regulation of the chiA gene. Plant Cell 2, 393–401.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Verweij, C.W. (2007) Vacuolar Acidification: Mechanism, Regulation and Function in Petunia Flowers. Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.

    Google Scholar 

  • Verweij, W., Spelt, C., Di Sansebastiano, G.P., Vermeer, J., Reale, L., Ferranti, F., Koes, R.E. and Quattrocchio, F. (In press) A novel type of tonoplast localized H+-ATPase is required for vacuolar acidification and coloration of flowers and seeds. Nature Cell Biology.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, D., Van der Luit, A.H., Kroon, J.T.M., Mol, J.N.M. and Kooter, J.M. (1993) The Petunia homologue of the Antirhinum majus candi gene and Zea mays A2 flavonoid genes: Homology to flavanone 3- hydroxylase and ethylene forming enzyme. Plant Mol. Biol. 22, 893–897.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Winkel, B.S.J. (2004) Metabolic channeling in plants. Annu. Rev. Plant Biol. 55, 85–107.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yamazaky, M., Yamagishi, E., Gong, Z., Fukuchi-Mizutani, M., Fukui, Y., Tanaka, Y., Kusumi, T., Yamaguchi, M. and Saito, K. (2002) Two flavonoid glucosyltransferases from Petunia hybrida: Molecular cloning, biochemical properties and developmentally regulated expression. Plant Molec. Biol. 48, 401–411.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ylstra, B., Busscher, J., Franken, J., Hollman, P.C.H., Mol, J.N.M. and van Tunen, A.J.J. (1994) Flavonols and fertilization in Petunia hybrida: Localization and mode of action during pollen tube growth. Plant J. 6, 201–212.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Developmental Biology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1081–1087, 1081 HV Amsterdam, Nederland

    Giambattista Tornielli

Authors
  1. Giambattista Tornielli
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Ronald Koes
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Francesca Quattrocchio
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Giambattista Tornielli .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Radboud University Nijmegen, 6500 GL Nijmegen, Netherlands

    Tom Gerats

  2. Dept. Plant Agriculture, University of Guelph, 50 Stone Rd. E., Guelph ON N1G 2W1, Bovey Bldg, Canada

    Judith Strommer

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2009 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Tornielli, G., Koes, R., Quattrocchio, F. (2009). The Genetics of Flower Color. In: Gerats, T., Strommer, J. (eds) Petunia. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-84796-2_13

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation