Skip to main content

Part of the book series: Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology ((AEMB,volume 609))

Trachoma is a chronic kerato-conjunctivitis caused by the intracellular bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis. In the nineteenth century it was an important cause of blindness in Europe and North America, but it disappeared from more affluent parts of the world as living standards improved in the twentieth century. It is now a disease of poor rural communities, mainly in Africa and Asia, but it remains the leading infectious cause of blindness worldwide (Mabey et al. 2003).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Alemayehu W, Melese M, Bejiga A, Worku A, Kebede W, and Fantaye D. (2004). Surgery for trichiasis by ophthalmologists versus integrated eye care workers. Ophthalmology, 111:578–584.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Batt SL, Charalombous BM, Solomon AW, Massae PA, Safari S, Sam N, Everett D, Knirsch C, Mabey DCW, and Gillespie SH. (2003). Impact of azithromycin administration for trachoma control on the carriage of antibiotic resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 47:2765–2769.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bird M, Dawson CR, Schachter J, Miao Y, and Shama A et al. (2003). Does the diagnosis of trachoma adequately identify ocular chlamydial infection in trachoma-endemic areas? J Infect Dis, 187:1669–1673.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burton MJ, Holland MJ, Faal N, Aryee E, Alexander NDE, Makalo P, Bah M, Faal H, West SK, Foster A, Johnson GJ, Mabey DCW, and Bailey RL. (2003). Which members of a community need antibiotics to control trachoma? Conjunctival Chlamydia trachomatis infection load in a trachoma endemic Gambian community. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 44:4215–4222.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burton MJ, Bailey RL, Jeffries D, Mabey DCW, and Holland MJ. (2004). Cytokine and fibrogenic gene expression in the conjunctiva of subjects from a trachoma endemic Gambian community. Infect Immun, 72:7352–7356.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Burton MJ, Holland MJ, Makalo P, Aryee EAN, Alexander NDE, Sillah A, Faal H, West SK, Foster A, Johnson GJ, Mabey DCW, and Bailey RL. (2005a). The impact of mass antibiotic treatment on Chlamydia trachomatis infection and its re-emergence in a trachoma endemic Gambian community. Lancet, 365:1321–1328.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burton MJ, Bowman RJC, Faal H, Aryee EAN, Ikumapayi UN, Alexander NDE, Adegbola RA, West SK, Mabey DCW, Foster A, Johnson GJ, and Bailey RL. (2005b). Long-term outcome of trichiasis surgery in The Gambia. BJO, 89:574–579.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burton MJ, Kinteh F, Jallow O, Sillah A, Bah M, Faye M, Aryee EAN, Ikumapayi N, Alexander NDE, Adegbola R, Faal H, Mabey DCW, Foster A, Johnson GJ, and Bailey RL. (2005c). A randomised controlled trial of azithromycin following surgery for trachomatous trichiasis in The Gambia. BJO, 89:1282–1288.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Burton MJ, Holland MJ, Jeffries D, Johnson GJ, Mabey DCW, and Bailey RL. (2006). Identifying productive conjunctival Chlamydia trachomatis infections. Measurement of chlamydial 16S rRNA expression in the members of a trachoma endemic Gambian community. Clin Infect Dis, 42:463–470.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Caldwell HD, Wood H, Crane D, Bailey R, Jones RB, Mabey D, Maclean I, Mohammed Z, Peeling R, Roshick C, Suchland RJ, Stamm WE, Taylor L, West SK, Quinn TC, Belland RJ, and McClarty G. (2003). Polymorphisms in Chlamydia trachomatis tryptophan synthase genes differentiates between genital and ocular isolates. Implications in pathogenesis and infection tropism. J Clin Invest, 111:1757–1769.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chami Y, Hammou J, and Mahjour J. (2004). Lessons from the Moroccan National Trachoma Control Programme. Community Eye Health, 17:59.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chidambaram JD, Bird M, Schiedler V, Fry AM, Porco T, Bhatta RC, Jha H, Chaudary JSP, Gaynor B, Yi E, Whitcher JP, Osaki-Holm S, and Lietman TM. (2004). Trachoma decline and widespread use of antimicrobial drugs. Emerg Infect Dis, 10:1895–1899.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chidambaram J, Lee D, Porco T, and Lietman T. (2005). Mass antibiotics for trachoma and the Allee effect. Lancet Infect Dis, 5:194–196.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chidambaram JD, Alemayehu W, Melese M, Lakew T, Yi E, House J, Cevallos V, Zhou Z, Maxey K, Lee DC, Shapiro BL, Srinivasan M, Porco T, Whitcher JP, Gaynor BD, and Lietman TM. (2006). Effect of a single mass antibiotic distribution on the prevalence of infectious trachoma. JAMA, 295:1142–1146.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cumberland P, Hailu G, and Todd J. (2005). Active trachoma in children aged three to nine years in rural communities in Ethiopia: prevalence, indicators and risk factors. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg, 99:120–127.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Desmond N, Solomon A, Massae P, Lema N, Anemona A, Foster A, and Mabey D. (2005). An examination of the acceptability of azithromycin in the control of trachoma in Northern Tanzania. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg, 99:656–663.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dolin PJ, Faal H, Johnson GJ, Ajewole J, Mohamed AA, and Lee PL. (1998). Trachoma in the Gambia. Br J Ophthalmol, 82:930–933.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Faal N, Bailey RL, Sarr I, Joof H, Mabey DCW, and Holland MJ. (2005). Temporal cytokine gene expression patterns in subjects with trachoma identify distinct conjunctival responses associated with infection. Clin Exp Immunol, 142:347–353.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fry AM, Jha HC, Lietman TM, Chaudhary JSP, Bhatta RC, Elliott J, Hyde T, Schuchat A, Gaynor B, and Dowell SF. (2002). Adverse and beneficial secondary effects of mass treatment with azithromycin to eliminate blindness due to trachoma in Nepal. Clin Infect Dis, 35:395–402.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gaynor B, Zegans M, Bird M, Yi E, Holbrook K, Whitcher JP, and Lietman T. (2002). Disappearance of trachoma from Western Nepal. Clin Infect Dis, 35:765–768.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gaynor BD, Holbrook KA, Whitcher JP, Holm SO, Jha HC, Chaudhary JSP, Bhatta RC, and Lietman T. (2003). Community treatment with azithromycin for trachoma is not associated with antibiotic resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae at 1 year. BJO, 97:147–148.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harding-Esch E, Solomon A, Massae P, and Mabey D. (2006). Five year impact of mass azithromycin treatment on trachoma in Rombo District, Tanzania. In Chernesky M et al. (eds.), Chlamydial Infections. Proceedings of the Eleventh International Symposium on Human Chlamydial Infections. Niagara on the Lake, Canada, June 18th–23rd, pp. 333–336.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holland MJ, Faal N, Sarr I, Joof H, Cameron E, Pemberton-Pigott F, Dockrell HM, Bailey RL, and Mabey DCW. (2006). The frequency of Chlamydia trachomatis major outer membrane protein specific CD8+ T lymphocytes in active trachoma is associated with current ocular infection. Infect Immun, 74:1565–572.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jha H, Chaudary JS, Bhatta R, Miao Y, Osaki-Holm S, Gaynor B, Zegans M, Bird M, Yi E, Holbrook K, Whitcher JP, Lietman T. (2002). Disappearance of trachoma from Western Nepal. Clin Infect Dis, 35:765–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kuper H, Solomon AW, Zondervan M, Buchan J, Mabey D, and Foster A. (2005). Participatory evaluations of trachoma control programmes in eight countries. TMIH, 8:264–272.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mabey D and Solomon AW. (2003). Application of molecular tools in the control of Blinding Trachoma. Am J Trop Med Hyg, 69 (Suppl 5):11–17.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mabey D, Solomon A, and Foster A. (2003). Trachoma seminar. Lancet, 362:223–229.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Melese M, Chidambaran JD, Alemayehu W, Lee DC, Yi EH, Cevallos V, Zhou Z, Donnellan C, Saidel M, Whitcher JP, Gaynor BD, and Lietman TM. (2004). Feasibility of eliminating ocular Chlamydia trachomatis with repeat mass antibiotic treatments. JAMA, 292:721–725.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Michel CEC, Solomon AW, Magbanua JPV, Massae PA, Huang L, Mosha J, West SK, Nadala ECB, Bailey R, Wisniewski C, Mabey DCW, and Lee HH. (2006). A rapid point-of-care assay for targeting antibiotic treatment to eliminate trachoma. Lancet, 367:1585–1590.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miller K, Schmidt G, Melese M, Alemayehu W, and Yi E. et al. (2004). How reliable is the clinical exam in detecting ocular chlamydial infection? Ophthalmic Epidemiol, 11:255–262.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Munoz B, Solomon A, Zingeser J, Barwick R, Burton M, Bailey R, Foster A, Mabey D, and West SK. (2003). Antibiotic dosage in trachoma control programs: height as a surrogate for weight in children. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 44 1464–1469.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Natividad-Sancho A, Bailey R, Holland M, Kwiatkowski D, and Mabey D. (2005). Susceptibility to trachomatous scarring and trichiasis is associated with Interferon gamma (IFNa) and Interleukin 10 (IL10) gene single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) haplotypes. Genes Immun, 6:332–340.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Natividad A, Holland MJ, Rockett KA, Joof HM, Mabey DCW, Bailey RL, and Kwiatkowski DP. (2006). Clinical consequences of allelic variation in the cis-regulation of IL10 during active trachomatous disease in humans. In Chernesky M et al. (eds.), Chlamydial Infections. Proceedings of the Eleventh International Symposium on Human Chlamydial Infections. Niagara on the Lake, Canada, June 18th–23rd, pp. 555–558.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ngondi J, Onsarigo A, Adamu L, Matende I, Baba S, Reacher M, Emerson P, Zingeser J. (2005). The epidemiology of trachomo in Eastern Equatoria and Upper Nile States, southern Sudan. Bull World Health Organ, 83:904–12.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Polack S, Brooker S, Kuper H, Mabey D, and Foster A. (2005). The global distribution of trachoma. Bull World Health Organ, 83:913–919.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ranson MK and Evans TG. (2003). The global burden of trachomatous visual impairment: 1. Assessing prevalence. Int Ophthalmol, 19:261–270.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Resnikoff S, Pascolini D, Etya’ale D, Kocur I, Pararajasegaram R, Pokharel GP, and Mariotti SP. (2004). Global data on visual impairment in the year 2002. Bull World Health Organ, 82:844–851.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saal M, Schemann J, Saar B, Faye M, Momo G, and Mariotti SP. (2003). Trachoma in Senegal: findings of a national survey.Med Trop (Mars), 63:53–59.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schemann JF, Sacko D, Banou A, Bamani S, More B, and Coulibaly S. (1998). Cartography of trachoma in Mali: results of a national survey. Bull World Health Organ, 76:599–606.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schemann JF, Guinot C, Ilboudo L, Momo G, Ko B, and Sanfo O. (2003). Trachoma, flies and environmental factors in Burkina Faso. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg, 97:63–68.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Solomon AW, Holland MJ, Burton MJ, West SK, Alexander NDE, Aguirre A, Massae PA, Mkocha H, Munoz B, Johnson GJ, Peeling RW, Bailey RL, Foster A, and Mabey DCW. (2003). Strategies for control of trachoma: observational study with quantitative PCR. Lancet, 362:198–204.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Solomon AW, Foster A, Peeling RW, and Mabey DCW. (2004a). Diagnosis and assessment of trachoma. Clin Microbiol Rev, 17:982–1011.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Solomon AW, Holland MJ, Alexander NDE, Massae PA, Aguirre A, Natividad-Sancho A, Molina S, Safari S, Shao JF, Peeling RW, West SK, Bailey RL, Foster A, and Mabey DCW. (2004b). Mass treatment with single-dose azithromycin for trachoma. N Engl J Med, 351:1962–1971.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Solomon AW, Mohammed Z, Massae PA, Shao JF, Foster A, Maclean IW, Mabey DCW, and Peeling RW. (2005). Impact of mass distribution of azithromycin on the antibiotic susceptibilities of ocular Chlamydia trachomatis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 49:4804–4806.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thein J, Zhao P, Liu H, Xu J, and Jha H et al. (2002). Does clinical diagnosis indicate ocular chlamydial infection in areas with a low prevalence of trachoma? Ophthalmic Epidemiol, 9:263–269.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thylefors B, Negrel AD, Pararajasegaram R, and Dadzie KY. (1995). Global data on blindness. Bull World Health Organ, 73:115–121.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • West ES, Mkocha H, Munoz B, Mabey D, Bailey R, and West SK. (2005a). Risk factors for post-surgical trichiasis recurrence in a trachoma-endemic area. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 46:447–453.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • West ES, West SK, Munoz B, Mkocha H, Holland MJ, Aguirre A, Solomon AW, Bailey R, Foster A, and Mabey D. (2005b). Mass treatment and the effect on the load of C. trachomatis infection in a trachoma hyperendemic community. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci, 46:83–87.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • West S, Munoz B, Mkocha H, Duncan D, Solomon AW, Holland M, Beltran A, Foster A, Bailey R, and Mabey D. (2005). Infection with C. trachomatis after mass treatment of a trachoma hyperendemic community in Tanzania. Lancet, 366:1296–1300.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • West SK, West ES, Alemayehu W, Melese M, Munoz B, Imeru A, Worku A, Gaydos C, Meinert CL, and Quinn T. (2006). Single-dose azithromycin prevents trichiasis recurrence following surgery: randomised trial in Ethiopia. Arch Ophthalmol, 124: 309–314.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organisation (2004). Report of the eighth meeting of the WHO alliance for the elimination of blinding trachoma. World Health Organisation, Geneva, WHO/PBD/GET/04.2.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2008 Springer

About this paper

Cite this paper

Mabey, D. (2008). Trachoma: Recent Developments. In: Finn, A., Pollard, A.J. (eds) Hot Topics in Infection and Immunity in Children IV. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, vol 609. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-73960-1_8

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics