Abstract
Dosage compensation ensures that males and females equalize the expression of the X-linked genes and therefore provides an exquisite model system to study chromosome-wide transcription regulation. In Drosophila, this is achieved by hyper-transcription of the genes on the male X chromosome. This process requires an RNA/protein-containing dosage compensation complex. Here, we discuss the current status of the known Drosophila complex members as well as the recent views on targeting, assembly and spreading mechanisms.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Agalioti T, Chen G, Thanos D (2002) Deciphering the transcriptional histone acetylation code for a human gene. Cell 111:381–392
Akhtar A, Becker PB (2000) Activation of transcription through histone H4 acetylation by MOF, an acetyltransferase essential for dosage compensation in Drosophila. Mol Cell 5:367–375
Akhtar A, Becker PB (2001) The histone H4 acetyltransferase MOF uses a C2HC zinc finger for substrate recognition. EMBO Rep 2:113–118
Akhtar A, Zink D, Becker PB (2000) Chromodomains are protein-RNA interaction modules. Nature 407:405–409
Amrein H, Axel R (1997) Genes expressed in neurons of adult male Drosophila. Cell 88:459–469
Avner P, Heard E (2001) X-chromosome inactivation: counting, choice and initiation. Nat Rev Genet 2:59–67
Baker BS, Gorman M, Marin I (1994) Dosage compensation in Drosophila. Annu Rev Genet 28:491–521
Bashaw GJ, Baker BS (1995) The msl-2 dosage compensation gene of Drosophila encodes a putative DNA-binding protein whose expression is sex specifically regulated by Sex-lethal. Development 121:3245–3258
Bashaw GJ, Baker BS (1997) The regulation of the Drosophila msl-2 gene reveals a function for Sex-lethal in translational control. Cell 89:789–798
Baverstock PR, Adams M, Polkinghorne RW, Gelder M (1982) A sex-linked enzyme in birds — Z-chromosome conservation but no dosage compensation. Nature 296:763–766
Bertram MJ, Pereira-Smith OM (2001) Conservation of the MORF4 related gene family: identification of a new chromo domain subfamily and novel protein motif. Gene 266:111–121
Bhadra U, Pal-Bhadra M, Birchler JA (1999) Role of the male specific lethal (msl) genes in modifying the effects of sex chromosomal dosage in Drosophila. Genetics 152:249–268
Birchler JA, Bhadra U, Bhadra MP, Auger DL (2001) Dosage-dependent gene regulation in multicellular eukaryotes: implications for dosage compensation, aneuploid syndromes, and quantitative traits. Dev Biol 234:275–288
Birchler JA, Pal-Bhadra M, Bhadra U (2003) Dosage dependent gene regulation and the compensation of the X chromosome in Drosophila males. Genetica 117:179–190
Bone JR, Kuroda MI (1996) Dosage compensation regulatory proteins and the evolution of sex chromosomes in Drosophila. Genetics 144:705–713
Buscaino A, Kocher T, Kind JH, Holz H, Taipale M, Wagner K, Wilm M, Akhtar A (2003) MOF-regulated acetylation of MSL-3 in the Drosophila dosage compensation complex. Mol Cell 11:1265–1277
Cao R, Wang L, Wang H, Xia L, Erdjument-Bromage H, Tempst P, Jones RS, Zhang Y (2002) Role of histone H3 lysine 27 methylation in Polycomb-group silencing. Science 298:1039–1043
Carroll SB, Grenier JK, Weatherbee SD (2001) From DNA to diversity: molecular genetics and the evolution of animal design. Blackwell, Boston
Chang KA, Kuroda MI (1998) Modulation of MSL1 abundance in female Drosophila contributes to the sex specificity of dosage compensation. Genetics 150:699–709
Charlesworth B (1996) The evolution of chromosomal sex determination and dosage compensation. Curr Biol 6:149–162
Chiang PW, Kurnit DM (2003) Study of dosage compensation in Drosophila. Genetics 165:1167–1181
Chu DS, Dawes HE, Lieb JD, Chan RC, Kuo AF, Meyer BJ (2002) A molecular link between gene-specific and chromosome-wide transcriptional repression. Genes Dev 16:796–805
Cline TW, Meyer BJ (1996) Vive la difference: males vs females in flies vs worms. Annu Rev Genet 30:637–702
Copps K, Richman R, Lyman LM, Chang KA, Rampersad-Ammons J, Kuroda MI (1998) Complex formation by the Drosophila MSL proteins: role of the MSL2 RING finger in protein complex assembly. EMBO J 17:5409–5417
Corona DF, Clapier CR, Becker PB, Tamkun JW (2002) Modulation of ISWI function by site-specific histone acetylation. EMBO Rep 3:242–247
Czermin B, Melfi R, McCabe D, Seitz V, Imhof A, Pirrotta V (2002) Drosophila enhancer of Zeste/ESC complexes have a histone H3 methyltransferase activity that marks chromosomal Polycomb sites. Cell 111:185–196
Da Cunha PR, Granadino B, Perondini AL, Sanchez L (1994) Dosage compensation in sciarids is achieved by hypertranscription of the single X chromosome in males. Genetics 138:787–790
Deuring R, Fanti L, Armstrong JA, Sarte M, Papoulas O, Prestel M, Daubresse G, Verardo M, Moseley SL, Berloco M, Tsukiyama T, Wu C, Pimpinelli S, Tamkun JW (2000) The ISWI chromatin-remodeling protein is required for gene expression and the maintenance of higher order chromatin structure in vivo. Mol Cell 5:355–365
Eberharter A, Becker PB (2002) Histone acetylation: a switch between repressive and permissive chromatin. Second in review series on chromatin dynamics. EMBO Rep 3:224–229
Ellegren H (2002) Dosage compensation: do birds do it as well? Trends Genet 18:25–28
Fischle W, Wang Y, Jacobs SA, Kim Y, Allis CD, Khorasanizadeh S (2003) Molecular basis for the discrimination of repressive methyl-lysine marks in histone H3 by Polycomb and HP1 chromodomains. Genes Dev 17:1870–1881
Franke A, Baker BS (1999) The rox1 and rox2 RNAs are essential components of the compensasome, which mediates dosage compensation in Drosophila. Mol Cell 4:117–122
Franke A, Dernburg A, Bashaw GJ, Baker BS (1996) Evidence that MSL-mediated dosage compensation in Drosophila begins at blastoderm. Development 122:2751–2760
Fraser AG, Kamath RS, Zipperlen P, Martinez-Campos M, Sohrmann M, Ahringer J (2000) Functional genomic analysis of C. elegans chromosome I by systematic RNA interference. Nature 408:325–330
Gaunt MW, Miles MA (2002) An insect molecular clock dates the origin of the insects and accords with palaeontological and biogeographic landmarks. Mol Biol Evol 19:748–761
Gebauer F, Grskovic M, Hentze MW (2003) Drosophila sex-lethal inhibits the stable association of the 40S ribosomal subunit with msl-2 mRNA. Mol Cell 11:1397–1404
Ghosh S, Chatterjee RN, Bunick D, Manning JE, Lucchesi JC (1989) The LSP1-alpha gene of Drosophila melanogaster exhibits dosage compensation when it is relocated to a different site on the X chromosome. EMBO J 8:1191–1196
Gorman M, Franke A, Baker BS (1995) Molecular characterization of the male-specific lethal-3 gene and investigations of the regulation of dosage compensation in Drosophila. Development 121:463–475
Grskovic M, Hentze MW, Gebauer F (2003) A co-repressor assembly nucleated by Sex-lethal in the 3’UTR mediates translational control of Drosophila msl-2 mRNA. EMBO J 22:5571–5581
Gu W, Szauter P, Lucchesi JC (1998) Targeting of MOF, a putative histone acetyl transferase, to the X chromosome of Drosophila melanogaster. Dev Genet 22:56–64
Gu W, Wei X, Pannuti A, Lucchesi JC (2000) Targeting the chromatin-remodeling MSL complex of Drosophila to its sites of action on the X chromosome requires both acetyl transferase and ATPase activities. EMBO J 19:5202–5211
Hagstrom KA, Meyer BJ (2003) Condensin and cohesin: more than chromosome compactor and glue. Nat Rev Genet 4:520–534
Henry RA, Tews B, Li X, Scott MJ (2001) Recruitment of the male-specific lethal (MSL) dosage compensation complex to an autosomally integrated roX chromatin entry site correlates with an increased expression of an adjacent reporter gene in male Drosophila. J Biol Chem 276:31953–31958
Hiebert JC, Birchler JA (1994) Effects of the maleless mutation on X and autosomal gene expression in Drosophila melanogaster. Genetics 136:913–926
Hilfiker A, Hilfiker-Kleiner D, Pannuti A, Lucchesi JC (1997) mof, a putative acetyl transferase gene related to the Tip60 and MOZ human genes and to the SAS genes of yeast, is required for dosage compensation in Drosophila. EMBO J 16:2054–2060
Iizuka M, Smith MM (2003) Functional consequences of histone modifications. Curr Opin Genet Dev 13:154–160
Jacobs SA, Khorasanizadeh S (2002) Structure of HP1 chromodomain bound to a lysine 9-methylated histone H3 tail. Science 295:2080–2083
Jenuwein T, Allis CD (2001) Translating the histone code. Science 293:1074–1080
Jin Y, Wang Y, Walker DL, Dong H, Conley C, Johansen J, Johansen KM (1999) JIL-1: a novel chromosomal tandem kinase implicated in transcriptional regulation in Drosophila. Mol Cell 4:129–135
Jin Y, Wang Y, Johansen J, Johansen KM (2000) JIL-1, a chromosomal kinase implicated in regulation of chromatin structure, associates with the male specific lethal (MSL) dosage compensation complex. J Cell Biol 149:1005–1010
Kageyama Y, Mengus G, Gilfillan G, Kennedy HG, Stuckenholz C, Kelley RL, Becker PB, Kuroda MI (2001) Association and spreading of the Drosophila dosage compensation complex from a discrete roX1 chromatin entry site. EMBO J 20:2236–2245
Kelley RL, Kuroda MI (2003) The Drosophila roX1 RNA gene can overcome silent chromatin by recruiting the male-specific lethal dosage compensation complex. Genetics 164:565–574
Kelley RL, Solovyeva I, Lyman LM, Richman R, Solovyev V, Kuroda MI (1995) Expression of msl-2 causes assembly of dosage compensation regulators on the X chromosomes and female lethality in Drosophila. Cell 81:867–877
Kelley RL, Wang J, Bell L, Kuroda MI (1997) Sex lethal controls dosage compensation in Drosophila by a non-splicing mechanism. Nature 387:195–199
Kelley RL, Meller VH, Gordadze PR, Roman G, Davis RL, Kuroda MI (1999) Epigenetic spreading of the Drosophila dosage compensation complex from roX RNA genes into flanking chromatin. Cell 98:513–522
Kernan MJ, Kuroda MI, Kreber R, Baker BS, Ganetzky B (1991) napts, a mutation affecting sodium channel activity in Drosophila, is an allele of mle, a regulator of X chromosome transcription. Cell 66:949–959
Kimura A, Umehara T, Horikoshi M (2002) Chromosomal gradient of histone acetylation established by Sas2p and Sir2p functions as a shield against gene silencing. Nat Genet 32:370–377
Kuroda MI, Kernan MJ, Kreber R, Ganetzky B, Baker BS (1991) The maleless protein associates with the X chromosome to regulate dosage compensation in Drosophila. Cell 66:935–947
Kuroiwa A, Yokomine T, Sasaki H, Tsudzuki M, Tanaka K, Namikawa T, Matsuda Y (2002) Biallelic expression of Z-linked genes in male chickens. Cytogenet Genome Res 99:310–314
Kuzmichev A, Nishioka K, Erdjument-Bromage H, Tempst P, Reinberg D (2002) Histone methyltransferase activity associated with a human multiprotein complex containing the Enhancer of Zeste protein. Genes Dev 16:2893–2905
Langst G, Becker PB (2001) Nucleosome mobilization and positioning by ISWI-containing chromatin-remodeling factors. J Cell Sci 114:2561–2568
Lee CG, Chang KA, Kuroda MI, Hurwitz J (1997) The NTPase/helicase activities of Drosophila maleless, an essential factor in dosage compensation. EMBO J 16:2671–2681
Lee CG, da Costa Soares V, Newberger C, Manova K, Lacy E, Hurwitz J (1998) RNA helicase A is essential for normal gastrulation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95:13709–13713
Lusser A, Kadonaga JT (2003) Chromatin remodeling by ATP-dependent molecular machines. Bioessays 25:1192–1200
Lyman LM, Copps K, Rastelli L, Kelley RL, Kuroda MI (1997) Drosophila male-specific lethal-2 protein: structure/function analysis and dependence on MSL-1 for chromosome association. Genetics 147:1743–1753
Marin I (2003) Evolution of chromatin-remodeling complexes: comparative genomics reveals the ancient origin of “novel” compensasome genes. J Mol Evol 56:527–539
Marin I, Baker BS (1998) The evolutionary dynamics of sex determination. Science 281:1990–1994
Marin I, Baker BS (2000) Origin and evolution of the regulatory gene male-specific lethal-3. Mol Biol Evol 17:1240–1250
Marin I, Franke A, Bashaw GJ, Baker BS (1996) The dosage compensation system of Drosophila is co-opted by newly evolved X chromosomes. Nature 383:160–163
McQueen HA, McBride D, Miele G, Bird AP, Clinton M (2001) Dosage compensation in birds. Curr Biol 11:253–257
Meller VH (2003) Initiation of dosage compensation in Drosophila embryos depends on expression of the roX RNAs. Mech Dev 120:759–767
Meller VH, Rattner BP (2002) The roX genes encode redundant male-specific lethal transcripts required for targeting of the MSL complex. EMBO J 21:1084–1091
Meller VH, Wu KH, Roman G, Kuroda MI, Davis RL (1997) roX1 RNA paints the X chromosome of male Drosophila and is regulated by the dosage compensation system. Cell 88:445–457
Meller VH, Gordadze PR, Park Y, Chu X, Stuckenholz C, Kelley RL, Kuroda MI (2000) Ordered assembly of roX RNAs into MSL complexes on the dosage-compensated X chromosome in Drosophila. Curr Biol 10:136–143
Meyer BJ (2000) Sex in the worm: counting and compensating X-chromosome dose. Trends Genet 16:247–253
Muller HJ (1948) Evidence of the precision of genetic adaptation. Harvey Lect 43:165–229
Muller J, Hart CM, Francis NJ, Vargas ML, Sengupta A, Wild B, Miller EL, O’Connor MB, Kingston RE, Simon JA (2002) Histone methyltransferase activity of a Drosophila Polycomb group repressor complex. Cell 111:197–208
Nakajima T, Uchida C, Anderson SF, Lee CG, Hurwitz J, Parvin JD, Montminy M (1997) RNA helicase A mediates association of CBP with RNA polymerase II. Cell 90:1107–1112
Neal KC, Pannuti A, Smith ER, Lucchesi JC (2000) A new human member of the MYST family of histone acetyl transferases with high sequence similarity to Drosophila MOF. Biochim Biophys Acta 1490:170–174
Oh H, Park Y, Kuroda MI (2003) Local spreading of MSL complexes from roX genes on the Drosophila X chromosome. Genes Dev 17:1334–1339
Orphanides G, Reinberg D (2000) RNA polymerase II elongation through chromatin. Nature 407:471–475
Palmer MJ, Mergner VA, Richman R, Manning JE, Kuroda MI, Lucchesi JC (1993) The male-specific lethal-one (msl-1) gene of Drosophila melanogaster encodes a novel protein that associates with the X chromosome in males. Genetics 134:545–557
Park Y, Kelley RL, Oh H, Kuroda MI, Meller VH (2002) Extent of chromatin spreading determined by roX RNA recruitment of MSL proteins. Science 298:1620–1623
Park Y, Mengus G, Bai X, Kageyama Y, Meller VH, Becker PB, Kuroda MI (2003) Sequence-specific targeting of Drosophila roX genes by the MSL dosage compensation complex. Mol Cell 11:977–986
Plath K, Fang J, Mlynarczyk-Evans SK, Cao R, Worringer KA, Wang H, de la Cruz CC, Otte AP, Panning B, Zhang Y (2003) Role of histone H3 lysine 27 methylation in X inactivation. Science 300:131–135
Prakash SK, van den Veyver IB, Franco B, Volta M, Ballabio A, Zoghbi HY (1999) Characterization of a novel chromo domain gene in xp22.3 with homology to Drosophila msl-3. Genomics 59:77–84
Rastelli L, Richman R, Kuroda MI (1995) The dosage compensation regulators MLE, MSL-1 and MSL-2 are interdependent since early embryogenesis in Drosophila. Mech Dev 53:223–233
Reenan RA, Hanrahan CJ, Barry G (2000) The mle(napts) RNA helicase mutation in Drosophila results in a splicing catastrophe of the para Na+ channel transcript in a region of RNA editing. Neuron 25:139–149
Richter L, Bone JR, Kuroda MI (1996) RNA-dependent association of the Drosophila male-less protein with the male X chromosome. Genes Cells 1:325–336
Ruiz MF, Esteban MR, Donoro C, Goday C, Sanchez L (2000) Evolution of dosage compensation in Diptera: the gene maleless implements dosage compensation in Drosophila (Brachycera suborder) but its homolog in Sciara (Nematocera suborder) appears to play no role in dosage compensation. Genetics 156:1853–1865
Sass GL, Pannuti A, Lucchesi JC (2003) Male-specific lethal complex of Drosophila targets activated regions of the X chromosome for chromatin remodeling. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100:8287–8291
Schreiber SL, Bernstein BE (2002) Signaling network model of chromatin. Cell 111:771–778
Scott MJ, Pan LL, Cleland SB, Knox AL, Heinrich J (2000) MSL1 plays a central role in assembly of the MSL complex, essential for dosage compensation in Drosophila. EMBO J 19:144–155
Silva J, Mak W, Zvetkova I, Appanah R, Nesterova TB, Webster Z, Peters AH, Jenuwein T, Otte AP, Brockdorff N (2003) Establishment of histone h3 methylation on the inactive X chromosome requires transient recruitment of Eed-Enx1 polycomb group complexes. Dev Cell 4:481–495
Smith ER, Pannuti A, Gu W, Steurnagel A, Cook RG, Allis CD, Lucchesi JC (2000) The Drosophila MSL complex acetylates histone H4 at lysine 16, a chromatin modification linked to dosage compensation. Mol Cell Biol 20:312–318
Smith ER, Allis CD, Lucchesi JC (2001) Linking global histone acetylation to the transcription enhancement of X-chromosomal genes in Drosophila males. J Biol Chem 276:31483–31486
Stuckenholz C, Meller VH, Kuroda MI (2003) Functional redundancy within roX1, a non-coding RNA involved in dosage compensation in Drosophila melanogaster. Genetics 164:1003–1014
Suka N, Luo K, Grunstein M (2002) Sir2p and Sas2p opposingly regulate acetylation of yeast histone H4 lysine16 and spreading of heterochromatin. Nat Genet 32:378–383
Suzuki MG, Shimada T, Kobayashi M (1999) Bm kettin, homologue of the Drosophila kettin gene, is located on the Z chromosome in Bombyx mori and is not dosage compensated. Heredity 82(2):170–179
Svejstrup JQ (2002) Chromatin elongation factors. Curr Opin Genet Dev 12:156–161
Turner BM (2002) Cellular memory and the histone code. Cell 111:285–291
Turner BM, Birley AJ, Lavender J (1992) Histone H4 isoforms acetylated at specific lysine residues define individual chromosomes and chromatin domains in Drosophila polytene nuclei. Cell 69:375–384
Velculescu VE, Madden SL, Zhang L, Lash AE, Yu J, Rago C, Lal A, Wang CJ, Beaudry GA, Ciriello KM, Cook BP, Dufault MR, Ferguson AT, Gao Y, He TC, Hermeking H, Hiraldo SK, Hwang PM, Lopez MA, Luderer HF, Mathews B, Petroziello JM, Polyak K, Zawel L, Zhang W, Zhang X, Zhou W, Haluska FG, Jen J, Sukumar S, Landes GM, Riggins GJ, Vogelstein B, Kinzler KW (1999) Analysis of human transcriptomes. Nat Genet 23:387–388
Wang Y, Zhang W, Jin Y, Johansen J, Johansen KM (2001) The JIL-1 tandem kinase mediates histone H3 phosphorylation and is required for maintenance of chromatin structure in Drosophila. Cell 105:433–443
West AG, Gaszner M, Felsenfeld G (2002) Insulators: many functions, many mechanisms. Genes Dev 16:271–288
Winkler GS, Kristjuhan A, Erdjument-Bromage H, Tempst P, Svejstrup JQ (2002) Elongator is a histone H3 and H4 acetyltransferase important for normal histone acetylation levels in vivo. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99:3517–3522
Wu CF, Ganetzky B, Jan LY, Jan YN (1978) A Drosophila mutant with a temperature-sensitive block in nerve conduction. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 75:4047–4051
Wutz A, Rasmussen TP, Jaenisch R (2002) Chromosomal silencing and localization are mediated by different domains of Xist RNA. Nat Genet 30:167–174
Yonker SA, Meyer BJ (2003) Recruitment of C. elegans dosage compensation proteins for gene-specific versus chromosome-wide repression. Development 130:6519–6532
Zeng L, Zhou MM (2002) Bromodomain: an acetyl-lysine binding domain. FEBS Lett 513:124–128
Zhang W, Jin Y, Ji Y, Girton J, Johansen J, Johansen KM (2003a) Genetic and phenotypic analysis of alleles of the Drosophila chromosomal JIL-1 kinase reveals a functional requirement at multiple developmental stages. Genetics 165:1341–1354
Zhang W, Wang Y, Long J, Girton J, Johansen J, Johansen KM (2003b) A developmentally regulated splice variant from the complex lola locus encoding multiple different zinc finger domain proteins interacts with the chromosomal kinase JIL-1. J Biol Chem 278:11696–11704
Zhou S, Yang Y, Scott MJ, Pannuti A, Fehr KC, Eisen A, Koonin EV, Fouts DL, Wrightsman R, Manning JE, Lucchesi JC (1995) Male-specific lethal 2, a dosage compensation gene of Drosophila, undergoes sex-specific regulation and encodes a protein with a RING finger and a metallothionein-like cysteine cluster. EMBO J 14:2884–2895
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2005 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Taipale, M., Akhtar, A. (2005). Chromatin Mechanisms in Drosophila Dosage Compensation. In: Jeanteur, P. (eds) Epigenetics and Chromatin. Progress in Molecular and Subcellular Biology, vol 38. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-27310-7_5
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-27310-7_5
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-540-23372-5
Online ISBN: 978-3-540-27310-3
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)