Abstract
Graphene has remarkable physical properties, but existing production methods have severe deficiencies that limit its potential use in robust technologies. Opening a reliable and efficient synthetic route to graphene and its functionalized derivatives offers a path to overcome this obstacle for its practical application. Graphene can be regarded as a two-dimensional polymer (2D), and it is here argued that it, along with its derivatives, represents a realistic yet challenging target for polymer synthesis.
In order to demonstrate the possibility of such syntheses, an overview is presented on the evolution of phenylene-based macromolecules. It is shown how classical linear polyphenylenes can be expanded to increasingly more sophisticated structures involving two- and three-dimensional (3D) polyphenylene architectures. A crucial aspect of the meticulous synthetic design of these molecules has been the avoidance of defects within the structures, resulting in the precise control of their physical, especially optoelectronic, properties.
Linear conjugated polymers with defined optical properties have been made by controlling the degree of torsion between the benzene rings. This has included the development of efficient routes to ladder-type polymers and of step-ladder materials. Planar graphene molecules, or nanographenes, in a range of sizes and shapes have been fabricated by the controlled cyclodehydrogenation of 3D polyphenylene dendrimers. By combining knowledge gained from the synthesis of conjugated polymers, polyphenylene dendrimers, and nanographenes, it has proven feasible to make, either by solution or surface-bound methods, graphene nanoribbons with well-defined structures. These functional materials possess properties similar to graphene while displaying improved processability.
Finally, we review less-sophisticated paths towards graphene materials involving processing of graphene oxide, its reduction, and its hybridization with other components. These too have a role to play in acquiring functional graphenes where a lesser degree of control over the properties is required. This voyage of exploration towards the precise synthesis of conjugated phenylene-based polymers has thus had the dual objectives of fundamental research and practical materials science. En route we have had to meet the sometimes conflicting gauntlets thrown down by these two aims, which has at times involved trade-offs between the theoretically desirable and the reasonably accessible.
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Acknowledgements
Synthetic breakthroughs in the fabrication of small conjugated molecules all the way to complex, functional polyphenylene macromolecules have led to the achievements in the synthesis of graphene and its derivatives. This would not have been possible without the immense efforts of many skilled and creative chemists, both molecular and material, physicists, and engineers that I have had the pleasure of working with. Therefore, I must express my sincerest appreciation for the hard work of my colleagues and students that contributed to this work. I am truly amazed at the successes we have experienced in transforming small molecules into the complex macromolecules discussed herein, and the properties that these structure possess. May we continue this work towards addressing new challenges and breakthroughs in the field of conjugated molecules.
 We would like to gratefully acknowledge the generous funding that has contributed to this research by the EU projects DISCEL (G5RD-CT-2000-00321), FP7-Energy-2010-FET Project Molesol (FP7-Energy-2010 256617), EU Project GENIUS (ITN-264694) Superior (ITN-238177) and the Integrated projects RADSAS (NMP3-CT-2004-001561), ONE-P (NMP3-LA-2008-212311), NAIMO (NMP4-CT-2004-500355), MAC-Mes (Grd2-2000-30242), NANOGRAPH (ERC-Adv.-Grant 267160). Additional financial support was provided by Volkswagen Stiftung, MPG (ENERCHEM), BMBF (Projects LiBZ and Graphenoid-Lagen), the German Science Foundation within the frame of the ESF Projects GOSPEL (09-EuroGRAPHENE-FP-001), SONS2-SUPRAMATES and SONS-BIONICS, Korean-German IRTG, DFG Priority Programs SPP 1355, SPP 1459 and the Sonderforschungsbereich SFB 625. Industrial collaborations with BASF AG, Ludwigshafen, Merck KGaA,, SONY, Hoffmann-La Roche AG, DuPont, and Sumitomo Chemical were also essential to the success of this work.
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Müllen, K. (2013). Graphene as a Target for Polymer Synthesis. In: Percec, V. (eds) Hierarchical Macromolecular Structures: 60 Years after the Staudinger Nobel Prize II. Advances in Polymer Science, vol 262. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/12_2013_239
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