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Global cities, the liability of foreignness, and theory on place and space in international business

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Abstract

Goerzen et al. (J Int Bus Stud 44:427–450, 2013) became influential because it generated a broader view of the international business (IB) domain. The paper broke new ground by going beyond the country and regional levels to analyze MNE location choices, a novel approach that revealed the importance of global cities. The original argument suggested that global connectedness, cosmopolitanism, and advanced producer services mitigated the liability of foreignness, thereby highlighting the complexity of MNE location decisions. It also drew attention to the need for IB research to take a more nuanced view of MNE behavior. Developments since 2013, however, have rendered a very different world. Our goal in this commentary, therefore, is to challenge the IB community to think more deeply about the future of global cities specifically and about IB more generally. We do this by re-evaluating the role of cities as micro-locations against the emergence of megatrends that are shaping our future, including demographic shift and an increase in social awareness, the changing natural environment and an increase in sustainability concerns, and the rise in capability and application of digital technologies. We conclude by suggesting that IB research must connect more deeply with interdisciplinary theories and methodologies to produce generative IB research.

Résumé

L’article de Goerzen, Asmussen et Nielsen (2013) est devenu influent parce qu'il a généré une vision plus large du domaine des affaires internationales (International Business-IB). L'article a innové en allant au-delà des niveaux national et régional pour analyser les choix de localisation des entreprises multinationales (Multinational Enterprises-MNEs), une nouvelle approche qui a révélé l'importance des villes mondiales. L'argument original suggère que la connectivité mondiale, le cosmopolitisme et les services avancés aux producteurs atténuent les handicaps et les coûts liés au statut étranger de l’organisation, mettant ainsi en évidence la complexité des décisions de localisation des MNEs. L’article attirait également l'attention sur la nécessité pour la recherche en IB d'adopter une perspective plus nuancée sur le comportement de ces dernières. Les développements survenus depuis 2013 ont néanmoins donné naissance à un monde très différent. L'objectif de ce commentaire est donc d'inciter la communauté de l'IB à réfléchir plus profondément à l'avenir des villes mondiales en particulier et à l'IB en général. Pour ce faire, nous réévaluons le rôle des villes en tant que micro-localisations face à l'émergence des mégatendances qui façonnent notre avenir, notamment les changements démographiques et l'augmentation de la conscience sociale, l'environnement naturel changeant et les préoccupations croissantes en matière de durabilité, ainsi que la montée en puissance de la capacité et de l'application des technologies numériques. Nous concluons en suggérant que la recherche en IB doit se connecter plus profondément aux méthodologies et théories interdisciplinaires afin de produire une recherche générative en IB.

Resumen

Goerzen, Asmussen, y Nielsen (2013) se volvieron influyentes dado a que generaron una perspectiva más amplia del dominio de Negocios Internacionales (IB por sus iniciales en inglés). Este artículo abrió nuevos senderos al ir más de los niveles de país y regional al analizar las decisiones de ubicación, un enfoque novedoso que reveló la importancia de las ciudades globales. El argumento original planteaba que la conectividad global, el cosmopolitismo y los servicios avanzados al productor mitigaban las desventajas de extranjería, por ende, resaltando la complejidad de las decisiones de ubicaciones de las empresas multinacionales. También llamó la atención a la necesidad de investigación en negocios internacionales para adoptar una perspectiva más matizada del comportamiento de las empresas multinacionales. Los desarrollos desde el 2013, sin embargo, ha dado lugar a un mundo muy diferente. Nuestra meta en este comentario, por ende, es retar a la comunidad de Negocios Internacionales más profundamente sobre el futuro de las ciudades globales específicamente sobre Negocios Internacionales en general. Hacemos esto al re-evaluar el papel de las ciudades como micro-ubicaciones respecto a la emergencia de mega-tendencias que están moldeando nuestro futuro, incluyendo el cambio demográfico, un aumento de la conciencia social, lo cambiante del ambiente natural y un aumento de las preocupaciones en sostenibilidad, y el aumento de la capacidad y aplicación de tecnologías digitales. Concluimos sugiriendo que la investigación en negocios internacionales debe conectar más profundamente con teorías interdisciplinarias y metodologías para producir investigación generativa sobre negocios internacionales.

Resumo

Goerzen, Asmussen e Nielsen (2013) tornou-se influentes porque gerou uma visão mais ampla do domínio dos negócios internacionais (IB). O artigo inovou ao ir além dos níveis nacional e regional para analisar as escolhas de localização de MNEs, uma abordagem inovadora que revelou a importância de cidades globais. O argumento original sugeria que conectividade global, cosmopolitismo e serviços avançados de produção mitigavam a desvantagem de ser estrangeiro, destacando assim a complexidade das decisões de localização de MNEs. O artigo também chamou a atenção para a necessidade de pesquisa em IB buscando uma visão mais matizada do comportamento de MNEs. Desenvolvimentos desde 2013, no entanto, criaram um mundo bem diferente. Nosso objetivo neste comentário, portanto, é desafiar a comunidade de IB a pensar mais profundamente sobre o futuro de cidades globais, especificamente, e sobre IB de forma mais ampla. Fazemos isso ao reavaliar o papel de cidades enquanto microlocalizações face à emergência de megatendências que estão moldando o nosso futuro, incluindo a mudança demográfica e um aumento da consciência social, o ambiente natural em mudança e um aumento na preocupação com a sustentabilidade, e o aumento na capacidade e aplicação de tecnologias digitais. Concluímos sugerindo que a pesquisa em IB deve conectar-se mais profundamente com teorias e metodologias interdisciplinares para produzir pesquisas generativas em IB.

摘要

Goerzen、Asmussen和Nielsen (2013) 之所以有影响, 是因为它给国际商业 (IB) 领域带来了一个更广的视角。该论文突破国家和地区层面来分析跨国公司(MNE)的选址, 这是一种揭示全球城市重要性的新方法。最初的论点认为, 全球连通性、世界主义和先进的生产者服务减轻了外来者劣势, 从而突出了MNE选址决策的复杂性。 它还提请注意IB研究需要对MNE行为采取更细致的观点。然而, 自2013年以来的事态发展使世界大不相同。因此, 我们在这篇评论中的目标是挑战IB社区, 让他们更深入地思考IB以及全球城市的未来。我们通过重新评估城市作为微观位置的作用, 衬托正在塑造我们未来的大趋势的出现, 这包括人口转移和社会意识的提高, 自然环境的变化和可持续性问题的增加, 以及数字技术能力和应用的提高。最后, 我们建议IB研究必须与跨学科的理论和方法更深入地联系起来以产生生成性IB研究。

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Notes

  1. JIBS, JWB, GSJ, MIR, JIM, and IBR.

  2. While the exact timing is debated, major inflection points included the 2008 financial crisis, the US election in 2016, and the Brexit referendum in the same year, while net inflows as share of FDI peaked in 2007 (Our World in Data) and US reliance on Chinese imports in 2014 (Witt, Lewin, Li, & Gaur, 2023).

  3. The heterogeneity of MNEs is beyond the scope of this paper but constitutes important extensions to location research pertaining to the global city-LOF framework. The original 2013 paper was restricted by all MNEs being from one advanced country (Japan) and future research would benefit from testing the key predictions of both the original and the current framework on samples of MNEs from a variety of countries, including emerging, advanced, global North and global South as well as from specific cities and/or city-networks in order to establish broader generalizability of the theory. For instance, MNEs from emerging markets may experience LOF characteristics differently than MNEs from more advanced economies, resulting in different internationalization patterns (Hernandez & Guillén, 2018). Notwithstanding these potentially important differences, we contend that MNEs share a number of characteristics that attract them to cities (global or otherwise) as locations that may help overcome LOF.

  4. Time zone separation can also bring advantages to firms, depending on the types of task interdependencies they face. For example, when tasks can be carried out sequentially in different locations, time zone separation enables ‘around the clock’ production (Taweel et al., 2006). However, MNE coordination and control tasks are arguably more reciprocal in nature and therefore requires more rapid and interactive communication.

  5. These rankings are based on CEO World Magazine (inclusive cities), Arcadis (sustainable cities), IMD (smart cities), and AT Kearney (global cities). See: https://imd.cld.bz/IMD-Smart-City-Index-Report-20231/14/, https://ceoworld.biz/2019/11/22/these-are-the-most-prosperous-and-inclusive-cities-in-the-world-2019/; https://www.wbcsd.org/Overview/News-Insights/Member-spotlight/The-Arcadis-Sustainable-Cities-Index-2022; https://www.kearney.com/industry/public-sector/global-cities/2022.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Queen’s University, Kingston, Canada

    Anthony Goerzen

  2. Copenhagen Business School, Frederiksberg, Denmark

    Christian Geisler Asmussen

  3. University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia

    Bo Bernhard Nielsen

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  1. Anthony Goerzen
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  2. Christian Geisler Asmussen
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  3. Bo Bernhard Nielsen
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Correspondence to Anthony Goerzen.

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Accepted by Rosalie L. Tung, Editor-in-Chief, 5 November 2023. This article has been with the author for one revision and was single-blind reviewed.

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Goerzen, A., Asmussen, C.G. & Nielsen, B.B. Global cities, the liability of foreignness, and theory on place and space in international business. J Int Bus Stud 55, 10–27 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41267-023-00672-5

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