Abstract
Using Robert Agnew's General Strain Theory as a guiding framework, the relationship between workplace-related stressors and maladaptive emotional and behavioral outcomes was examined via personal interview data from a private-sector corporation. Victims of aggressive behavior, such as those who had been attacked or threatened physically, insulted or harassed by phone, insulted or called names, bothered with unwanted sexual advances, threatened of job security, set up for failure, or mistreated in some other way were more likely to maladaptively cope in various ways. Other less blatant mistreatment such as being kept from obtaining a raise, deprived of privileges given to others, denied training, or treated as if one did not exist revealed a similar differentiating relationship. Limitations and policy implications that accompany the findings are provided to inform organizations in their efforts to promote a safe, stable, and effective work environment.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
While not explored in this work, hostile attribution bias may also be a predictor of maladaptive coping mechanisms by corporate employees. This term describes a tendency to interpret ambiguous social cues as hostile or purposefully antagonistic (Epstein and Taylor, 1967; Weiner, 1985, 1986; Betancourt and Blair, 1992).
References
Agnew, R. (1992) Foundation for a General Strain Theory of Crime and Delinquency. Criminology. Vol. 30, No. 1, pp 47–87.
Agnew, R. (1999) A General Strain Theory of Community Differences in Crime Rates. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency. Vol. 36, No. 2, pp 123–155.
Agnew, R. (2001) Building on the Foundation of General Strain Theory: Specifying the Types of Strain Most Likely to Lead to Crime and Delinquency. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency. Vol. 38, No. 4, pp 319–362.
Agnew, R. and White, H.R. (1992) An Empirical Test of General Strain Theory. Criminology. Vol. 30, No. 4, pp 475–499.
Aseltine Jr., R.H., Gore, S. and Gordon, J. (2000) Life Stress, Anger and Anxiety, and Delinquency: An Empirical Test of General Strain Theory. Journal of Health and Social Behavior. Vol. 41, No. 3, pp 256–275.
Atkinson, W. (2000) The Everyday Face of Workplace Violence. Risk Management. Vol. 47, No. 2, pp 12–18.
Barclay, D. and Wakabayashi, R. (2000) Hate Crimes and the Business Community. Diversity Factor. Vol. 8, No. 3, pp 32–37.
Baron, R.A. and Neuman, J.J. (1996) Workplace Violence and Workplace Aggression: Evidence on Their Relative Frequency and Potential Causes. Aggressive Behavior. Vol. 22, No. 3, pp 161–173.
Baron, R.A. and Neuman, J.J. (1998) Workplace Aggression – The Iceberg Beneath the Tip of Workplace Violence: Evidence of its Forms, Frequency, and Targets. Public Administration Quarterly. Vol. 21, No. 4, pp 446–464.
Baron, R.A., Neuman, J.H. and Geddes, D. (1999) Social and Personal Determinants of Workplace Aggression: Evidence for the Impact of Perceived Injustice and the Type A Behavior Pattern. Aggressive Behavior. Vol. 25, No. 4, pp 281–296.
Betancourt, H. and Blair, I. (1992) A Cognition (Attribution)-Emotion Model of Violence in Conflict Situations. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. Vol. 18, No. 3, pp 343–350.
Bielby, W.T. (2000) Minimizing Workplace Gender and Racial Bias. Contemporary Sociology. Vol. 29, No. 1, pp 120–129.
Bies, R.J. and Tripp, T.M. (1996) Beyond Distrust: “Getting even” and the Need For Revenge. In Kramer, R.M. and Tyler T.R. (eds) Trust in Organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, pp 246–260.
Broidy, L.M. (2001) A Test of General Strain Theory. Criminology. Vol. 39, No. 1, pp 9–35.
Bureau of Labor Statistics (2006a) Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries, 2005. [Online] Available at http://www.bls.gov/iif/oshwc/cfoi/cftb0206.pdf, July 13, 2007.
Bureau of Labor Statistics (2006b) Survey of Workplace Violence Prevention, 2005. [Online] Available at http://www.bls.gov/iif/oshwc/osnr0026.pdf, July 13, 2007.
Bycio, P. (1992) Job Performance and Absenteeism: A Review and Meta-analysis. Human Relations. Vol. 45, No. 2, pp 193–220.
Carcione, S.G. (2000) Workplace Violence: What You Don't Know Could Hurt You. Buildings. Vol. 94, No. 7, pp 46–48.
Cernkovich, S.A., Giordano, P.C. and Rudolph, J.L. (2000) Race, Crime, and the American Dream. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency. Vol. 37, No. 2, pp 131–138.
Chandra, J. and Kleiner, B.H. (1998) Sex Discrimination in the Workplace. Age, Sex, Colour, and Disability Discrimination in America. Equal Opportunities International. Vol. 17, pp 13–16.
Dekker, I. and Barling, J. (1998) Personal and Organizational Predictors of Workplace Sexual Harassment of Women by Men. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology. Vol. 3, No. 1, pp 7–18.
Engleman, D. and Kleiner, B.H. (1998) Age, Sex, Colour, and Disability Discrimination in America. Equal Opportunities International. Vol. 17, pp 3–7.
Epstein, S. and Taylor, S.P. (1967) Instigation to Aggression as a Function of Degree of Defeat and Perceived Aggressive Intent of the Opponent. Journal of Personality. Vol. 35, No. 2, pp 265–289.
Farnworth, M. and Lieber, M.J. (1989) Strain Theory Revisited: Economic Goals, Educational Means, and Delinquency. American Sociological Review. Vol. 54, No. 2, pp 263–274.
Fein, R.A., Vossekuil, B. and Holden, G.A. (1995) Threat Assessment: An Approach to Prevent Targeted Violence. Washington, DC: U. S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice.
Flynn, G. (2000) Employers Can't Look Away from Workplace Violence. Workforce. Vol. 79, No. 7, pp 68–70.
Fox, S. and Spector, P.E. (1999) A Model of Work Frustration-Aggression. Journal of Organizational Behavior. Vol. 20, No. 6, pp 915–931.
Garcia, M.L. (2000) Truth and Consequences. Security Management. Vol. 44, No. 6, pp 44–48.
Graham, J.P. (1991) Disgruntled Employees – Ticking Time Bombs? Security Management. Vol. 36, pp 83–85.
Greenberg, J. and Alge, B. (1998) Aggressive Reactions to Workplace Injustice. In Griffin, R.W., O'Leary-Kelly A. and Collins, J.M. (eds) Dysfunctional Behavior in Organizations: Violent and Deviant Behavior. Stanford, CT: JAI Press, pp 83–117.
Greenberg, L. and Barling, J. (1999) Predicting Employee Aggression Against Coworkers, Subordinates and Supervisors: The Roles of Person Behaviors and Perceived Workplace Factors. Journal of Organizational Behavior. Vol. 20, No. 6, pp 897–913.
Greenberg, E. and Grunberg, L. (1995) Work Alienation and Problem Alcohol Behavior. Journal of Health and Social Behavior. Vol. 36, No. 1, pp 83–102.
Grunberg, L., Moore, S. and Greenberg, E.S. (1998) Work Stress and Problem Alcohol Behavior: A Test of the Spillover Model. Journal of Organizational Behavior. Vol. 19, No. 5, pp 487–502.
Hoffmann, J.P. and Miller, A.S. (1998) A Latent Variable Analysis of General Strain Theory. Journal of Quantitative Criminology. Vol. 14, No. 1, pp 83–110.
Hogan, J. and Hogan, R. (1989) How to Measure Employee Reliability. Journal of Applied Psychology. Vol. 74, No. 2, pp 273–279.
Hornady, J. (2000) Top Security Threats. Risk Management. Vol. 47, No. 6, p 10.
Kaufer, S. and Mattman, J.W. (2004) Workplace Violence: An Employer's Guide. [Online] Available at http://www.workviolence.com/articles/employers_guide.htm, August 14, 2006.
Kaukiainen, A., Salmivalli, C., Björkqvist, K., Österman, K., Lahtinen, A., Kostamo, A. and Lagerspetz, K. (2001) Overt and Covert Aggression in Work Settings in Relation to the Subjective Well-Being of Employees. Aggressive Behavior. Vol. 27, No. 5, pp 360–371.
Kennedy, D.B., Homant, R.J. and Homant, M.R. (2004) Perception of Injustice as a Predictor of Support for Workplace Aggression. Journal of Business and Psychology. Vol. 18, No. 3, pp 323–336.
Leck, J.D. (2005) Violence in the Canadian Workplace. Journal of American Academy of Business. Vol. 7, No. 2, pp 308–315.
Liberman, J. (2000) Happiness Counts. Credit Union Management. Vol. 23, No. 3, pp 68–70.
Martinko, M.J. and Zellars, K.L. (1998) Toward a Theory of Workplace Violence and Aggression: A Cognitive Appraisal Perspective. In Griffin, R.W, O'Leary-Kelly, A. and Collins, J.M. (eds) Dysfunctional Behavior in Organizations: Violent and Deviant Behavior. Stanford, CT: JAI Press, pp 1–42.
Mattman, J.W. (2004) Preventing Violence in the Workplace. [Online] Available at http://www.workviolence.com/articles/preventing_violence.htm, August 14, 2006.
Mazerolle, P. and Maahs, J. (2000) General Strain and Delinquency: An Alternative Examination of Conditioning Influences. Justice Quarterly. Vol. 17, No. 4, pp 753–778.
Mazerolle, P., Piquero, A. and Capowich, G.E. (2003) Examining the Links Between Strain, Situational and Dispositional Anger, and Crime. Youth and Society. Vol. 35, No. 2, pp 131–158.
Merrick, B. (2000) Make Work a Safe Place. Credit Union Magazine. Vol. 66, No. 6, p 19.
Merton, R. (1938) Social Structure and Anomie. American Journal of Sociology. Vol. 3, pp 672–682.
Northwestern National Life (1993) Fear and Violence in the Workplace. Minneapolis, MN: Northwestern National Life Insurance Company.
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (1996) Workplace Violence, Awareness, and Prevention. Occupational Safety and Health Administration and the Long Island Coalition for Workplace Violence Awareness and Prevention. U.S. Department of Labor. [Online] Available at http://www.osha.gov/workplace_violence/wrkplaceViolence.intro.html, September 19, 2006.
Paternoster, R. and Mazerolle, P. (1994) General Strain Theory and Delinquency: A Replication and Extension. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency. Vol. 31, No. 3, pp 235–263.
Perez McCluskey, C. (2001) Understanding Latino Delinquency: The Applicability of Strain Theory Across Ethnic Groups. New York: LFB Scholarly Publishing.
Piquero, N.L. and Sealock, M.D. (2000) Generalizing General Strain Theory: An Examination of an Offending Population. Justice Quarterly. Vol. 17, No. 3, pp 449–484.
Rugala, E.A. (2002) Emerging Trends in Employment and Labor Law. FBI Congressional Testimony before the House Committee on Education and the Workforce, Subcommittee on Employer-Employee Relations. Federal Bureau of Investigation. [Online] Available http://www.fbi.gov/congress/congress02/rugala092602.htm, August 30, 2006.
Rugala, E.A. (2004) Workplace Violence: Issues in Response. Quantico, VA: U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation, Critical Incident Response Group, National Center for the Analysis of Violence, FBI Academy.
Sarkis, K. (2000) Lack of Sleep Affects Job Performance. Occupational Hazards. Vol. 62, No. 5, pp 33–34.
Schiff, L. (1997) Downsizing Workplace Stress. Business and Health. Vol. 15, No. 11, pp 45–46.
Tomilson, K.A. (2004) Seeking Redress for Workplace Violence: Employees Turning to OHSA Provisions to Prosecute Claims Against Employers. New York Law Journal. Vol. 231, No. 9, p 9.
Vahtera, J., Kivimaki, M. and Pentti, J. (1997) Effect of Organizational Downsizing on Health of Employees. The Lancet. Vol. 350, pp 1124–1128.
Weiner, B. (1985) An Attributional Theory of Achievement Motivation and Emotion. Psychological Review. Vol. 92, No. 4, pp 548–573.
Weiner, B. (1986) An Attributional Theory of Motivation and Emotion. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Weiss, J.C., Ehrlich, H.J. and Larcom, B.E.K. (1991–1992) Ethnoviolence at Work. Journal of Intergroup Relations. Vol. 18, No. 4, pp 28–29.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Hinduja, S. Occupational Stressors and Antinormative Behavior. Secur J 22, 269–285 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.sj.8350083
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.sj.8350083