Skip to main content
Log in

A (tentative) meta-analysis of the ‘place marketing’ and ‘place branding’ literature

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Journal of Brand Management Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Communities, cities, states, nations and regions have progressively applied more marketing and branding concepts and tools to boost exports and attract investors, businesses, visitors, residents, events and other important sources of revenue. These ubiquitous marketing efforts suggest that geographic locations have been managed as resolutely as products and brands. Furthermore, a rising number of practitioners and scholars have written about ‘place marketing’ and ‘place branding’. In the face of increasing interest in this area of study, the initial objective of this investigation was to develop a meticulous meta-analysis of nearly two decades of research on ‘place marketing’ and ‘place branding’. However, the multiplicity of subject matters covered in the literature, combined with the relentless use of case studies and other qualitative methods, hindered the use of the appropriate meta-analysis statistical tools. After a meticulous analysis of 211 articles (out of 259 articles identified), produced by 280 authors and published by 43 periodicals over a two-decade period, this article suggests ways to move the field from a descriptive to a normative stage of building theoretical knowledge.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abimbola, T. (2006) Market access for developing economies: Branding in Africa. Place Branding 2 (2): 108–117.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ahmed, S.A. and d'Astous, A. (2008) Antecedents, moderators and dimensions of country-of-origin evaluations. International Marketing Review 25 (1): 75–106.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Allen, G. (2007) Place branding: New tools for economic development. Design Management Review 18 (Spring): 60–69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, E., Chakrapani, C. and Hernandez, T. (2009) Marketing the downtown through geographically enhanced consumer segmentation. Journal of Place Management and Development 2: 125–139.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Andersson, M. (2007) Region branding: The case of the Baltic Sea Region. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 3 (April): 120–130.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Andersson, M. and Ekman, P. (2009) Ambassador networks and place branding. Journal of Place Management and Development 2: 41–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anholt, S. (2002a) Foreword. Journal of Brand Management 9 (April): 229–239.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anholt, S. (2002b) Nation branding: A continuing theme. Journal of Brand Management 10 (1): 59–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anholt, S. (2005a) Some important distinctions in place branding. Place Branding 1 (2): 116–121.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anholt, S. (2005b) Nation brand as context and reputation. Place Branding 1 (3): 224–228.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anholt, S. (2005c) Anholt nation brands index: How does the world see America? Journal of Advertising Research 45 (3): 296–304.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anholt, S. (2006a) Is place branding a capitalist tool? Place Branding 2 (1): 1–4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anholt, S. (2006b) The Anholt-GMI city brands index: How the world sees the world's cities. Place Branding 2 (1): 18–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anholt, S. (2006c) Why brand? Some practical considerations for nation branding. Place Branding 2 (2): 97–107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anholt, S. (2006d) Editorial. Place Branding 2 (3): 179–182.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anholt, S. (2006e) The Anholt Nation Brands Index: Special report on Europe's international image, Q2 2006, plus an update on the status of “Brand Denmark”. Place Branding 2 (3): 263–270.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anholt, S. (2006f) Public diplomacy and place branding: Where's the link? Place Branding 2 (4): 271–275.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anholt, S. (2007) Brand Europe – Where next? Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 3 (2): 115–119.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anholt, S. (2008a) Place branding: Is it marketing or isn’t it? Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 4 (1): 1–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anholt, S. (2008b) ‘Nation branding’ in Asia. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 4 (4): 265–269.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anholt, S. (2009a) Should place brands be simple? Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 5 (2): 91–96.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anholt, S. (2009b) The media and national image. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 5 (3): 169–179.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anholt, S. (2009c) ‘Is this about me?’ – The critical issue of relevance. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 5 (4): 253–259.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anholt, S. and Hildreth, J. (2005) Let freedom and cash registers ring: America as a brand. Place Branding 1 (2): 164–172.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ashworth, G. and Kavaratzis, M. (2009) Beyond the logo: Brand management for cities. Journal of Brand Management 16 (8): 520–531.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ashworth, G.J. and Voogd, H. (1994) Marketing of tourism places: What are we doing? Journal of International Consumer Marketing 6 (3/4): 5–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Askegaard, S. and Kjeldgaard, D. (2007) Here, there, and everywhere: Place branding and gastronomical globalization in a macromarketing perspective. Journal of Macromarketing 27 (2): 138–147.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aveline, J. (2006) Branding Europe? Branding, design and post-national loyalties. Place Branding 2 (4): 334–340.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Avraham, E. (2009) Marketing and managing nation branding during prolonged crisis: The case of Israel. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 5 (3): 202–212.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Avraham, E. and Ketter, E. (2008) Will we be safe there? Analysing strategies for altering unsafe place images. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 4 (3): 196–204.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ayyildiz, H. and Cengiz, E. (2007) Country image effect on customer loyalty model. Innovative Marketing 3 (2): 42–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Balakrishnan, M.S. (2008) Dubai – A star in the east. Journal of Management Development 1 (1): 62–91.

    Google Scholar 

  • Balakrishnan, M.S. (2009) Strategic branding of destinations: A framework. European Journal of Marketing 43 (5/6): 611–629.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barney, J.B. and Zhang, S. (2008) Collective goods, free riding and country brands: The Chinese experience. Management and Organization Review 4 (2): 211–223.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baum, T., Hearns, N. and Devine, F. (2008) Place branding and the representation of people at work: Exploring issues of tourism imagery and migrant labour in the Republic of Ireland. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 4 (1): 45–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berács, J. et al (2006) How has place branding developed during the year that Place Branding has been in publication? Place Branding 2 (1): 6–17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bergqvist, R. (2009) Place marketing in a logistics context: A Swedish case study and discourse. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 5 (1): 54–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berkowitz, P., Gjermano, G., Gomez, L. and Schafer, G. (2007) Brand China: Using the 2008 Olympic Games to enhance China's image. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 3 (2): 164–178.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bianchini, F. and Ghilardi, L. (2007) Thinking culturally about place. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 3 (4): 280–286.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blichfeldt, B.S. (2005) Unmanageable place brands? Place Branding 1 (4): 388–401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boyne, S. and Hall, D. (2004) Place promotion through food and tourism: Rural branding and the role of websites. Place Branding (1): 80–92.

  • Brabazon, T. (2009) Brand Wellington: When city imaging is GLAM’ed: A personal view. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 5 (4): 260–275.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brodowsky, G.H. (1998) The effects of country of origin and country of assembly on evaluations about automobiles and attitudes toward buying them: A comparison between low and high ethnocentric consumers. Journal of International Consumer Marketing 10 (3): 85–113.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Caldwell, N. and Freire, J.R. (2004) The differences between branding a country, a region and a city: Applying the Brand Box Model. Journal of Brand Management 12 (1): 50–61.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Capik, P. (2007) Organising FDI promotion in Central-Eastern European regions. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 3 (2): 152–163.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carlile, P. and Christensen, C. (2005) The Cycles of Theory Building in Management Research. Harvard Business School Working Paper No. 05-057. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School.

  • Cassel, S.H. (2008) Trying to be attractive: Image building and identity formation in small industrial municipalities in Sweden. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 4 (2): 102–114.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chattalas, M., Kramer, T. and Takada, H. (2008) The impact of national stereotypes on the country of origin effect: A conceptual framework. International Marketing Review 25 (1): 54–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chaudhri, V. and Fyke, J.P. (2008) Rhetoric in hostile diplomatic situations: A case study of Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's rhetoric during his 2007 US visit. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 4 (4): 317–330.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coaffee, J. and Rogers, P. (2008) Reputational risk and resiliency: The branding of security in place-making. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 4 (3): 205–217.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, A.F. and Momani, B. (2009) The challenge of re-branding progressive countries in the Gulf and Middle East: Opportunities through new networked engagements versus constraints of embedded negative images. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 5 (2): 103–117.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cubillo-Pinilla, J.M., Zuniga, J., Losantos, I.S. and Sanchez, J. (2009) Factors influencing international students’ evaluations of higher education programs. Journal of American Academy of Business Cambridge 15 (1): 270–278.

    Google Scholar 

  • Daramola-Martin, A. (2009) Liverpool One and the transformation of a city: Place branding, marketing and the catalytic effects of regeneration and culture on repositioning Liverpool. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 5 (4): 301–311.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • d'Astous, A. and Boujbel, L. (2007) Positioning countries on personality dimensions: Scale development and implications for country marketing. Journal of Business Research 60 (3): 231–239.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • d'Astous, A. and Li, D. (2009) Perceptions of countries based on personality traits: A study in China. Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics 21 (4): 475–488.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davies, G. (2009) Nation branding: Concepts, issues, practice. Journal of Brand Management 16 (8): 582–583.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Almeida Santos, C. (2004) Framing Portugal: Representational dynamics. Annals of Tourism Research 31 (1): 122–138.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Carlo, M., Canali, S., Pritchard, A. and Morgan, N. (2009) Moving Milan towards Expo 2015: Designing culture into a city brand. Journal of Place Management and Development 2 (1): 8–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deffner, A.M. and Labrianidis, L. (2005) Planning culture and time in a mega-event: Thessaloniki as the European city of culture in 1997. International Planning Studies 10 (3/4): 241–264.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dinnie, K. (2004) Place branding: Overview of an emerging literature. Place Branding 1 (1): 106–110.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dinnie, K. (2009) Destination branding for small cities: The essentials for successful place branding. Journal of Brand Management 17 (2): 159–161.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dooley, G. and Bowie, D. (2005) Place brand architecture: Strategic management of the brand portfolio. Place Branding 1 (4): 402–419.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Durie, A., Yeoman, I.S. and McMahon-Beattie, U. (2006) How the history of Scotland creates a sense of place. Place Branding 2 (1): 43–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dzenovska, D. (2005) Remaking the nation of Latvia: Anthropological perspectives on nation branding. Place Branding 1 (2): 173–186.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Echtner, C.M. and Ritchie, J.R. (1993) The measurement of destination image: An empirical assessment. Journal of Travel Research 31 (4): 3–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Endzina, I. and Luneva, L. (2004) Development of a national branding strategy: The case of Latvia. Place Branding 1 (1): 94–105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Florek, M. (2005) The country brand as a new challenge for Poland. Place Branding 1 (2): 205–214.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Florek, M. and Conejo, F. (2007) Export flagships in branding small developing countries: The cases of Costa Rica and Moldova. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 3 (1): 53–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Florek, M. and Insch, A. (2008) The trademark protection of country brands: Insights from New Zealand. Journal of Place Management and Development 1 (3): 292–306.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Florek, M., Insch, A. and Gnoth, J. (2006) City Council websites as a means of place brand identity communication. Place Branding 2 (4): 276–296.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Forristal, L.J. and Lehto, X.Y. (2009) Place branding with native species: Personality as a criterion. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 5 (3): 213–225.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Freire, J.R. (2005) Geo-branding, are we talking nonsense? A theoretical reflection on brands applied to places. Place Branding 1 (4): 347–362.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Freire, J.R. (2006) ‘Other tourists’: A critical factor for a geo-brand-building process. Place Branding 2 (1): 68–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Freire, J.R. (2009) ‘Local People’ a critical dimension for place brands. Journal of Brand Management 16 (7): 420–438.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fullerton, J.A., Kendrick, A., Chan, K., Hamilton, M. and Kerr, G. (2007) Attitudes towards American brands and Brand America. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 3 (3): 205–212.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fullerton, J.A., Kendrick, A. and Kerr, G. (2009) Australian student reactions to US tourism advertising: A test of advertising as public diplomacy. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 5 (2): 141–150.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fullerton, J.A., Kendrick, A. and Wallis, C. (2008) Brand Borat? Americans’ reaction to a Kazakhstani place branding campaign. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 4 (2): 159–168.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gaggiotti, H., Cheng, P.L.K. and Yunak, O. (2008) City brand management (CBM): The case of Kazakhstan. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 4 (2): 115–123.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gertner, D. (2007) Place branding: Dilemma or reconciliation between political ideology and economic pragmatism? Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 3 (1): 3–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gertner, D. and Kotler, P. (2004) How can a place correct a negative image? Place Branding 1 (1): 50–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gibson, C. and Davidson, D. (2004) Tamworth, Australia's ‘country music capital’: Place marketing, rurality, and resident reactions. Journal of Rural Studies 20 (4): 387–404.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gilmore, F. (2002) A country – Can it be repositioned? Spain – The success story of country branding. Journal of Brand Management 9 (4/5): 281–293.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gnoth, J. (2002) Leveraging export brands through a tourism destination brand. Journal of Brand Management 9 (4/5): 262–280.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gold, R.E. (2006) Intellectual architecture as place brand. Place Branding 2 (3): 220–228.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gould, M. and Skinner, H. (2007) Branding on ambiguity? Place branding without a national identity: Marketing Northern Ireland as a post-conflict society in the USA. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 3 (1): 100–113.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Graham, S.E. (2008) US public diplomacy in the Asia Pacific: Opportunities and challenges in a time of transition. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 4 (4): 336–356.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gross, A.C., Poor, J., Sipos, Z. and Solymossy, E. (2009) The multiple mandates of national park systems. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 5 (4): 276–289.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gudjonsson, H. (2005) Nation branding. Place Branding 1 (3): 283–298.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gurhan-Canli, Z. and Maheswaran, D. (2000a) Determinants of country-of-origin evaluations. Journal of Consumer Research 27 (1): 96–108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gurhan-Canli, Z. and Maheswaran, D. (2000b) Cultural variations in country of origin effects. Journal of Marketing Research 37 (3): 309–317.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hall, C.M. (2008) Servicescapes, designscapes, branding, and the creation of place-identity: South of Litchfield, Christchurch. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing 25 (3/4): 233–250.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hall, D. (2002) Brand development, tourism and national identity: The re-imaging of former Yugoslavia. Journal of Brand 9 (4/5): 323–334.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hankinson, G. (2001) Location branding: A study of the branding practices of 12 English cities. Journal of Brand Management 9 (2): 127–142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hankinson, G. (2004) Relational network brands: Towards a conceptual model of place brands. Journal of Vacationing Marketing 10 (2): 109–121.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hankinson, G. (2009) Managing destination brands: Establishing a theoretical foundation. Journal of Marketing Management 25 (1/2): 97–115.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hanna, S. and Rowley, J. (2008) An analysis of terminology use in place branding. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 4 (1): 61–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harmaakorpi, V., Kari, K. and Parjanen, S. (2008) City design management as a local competitiveness factor. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 4 (2): 169–181.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, S. (2002) Culture, tourism and local community – The heritage identity of the Isle of Man. Journal of Brand Management 9 (4/5): 355–371.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hemingway, W. (2007) Placemaking – Cultural branding. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 3 (4): 332–336.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Henderson, J.C. (2000) Selling places: The new Asia-Singapore brand. Journal of Tourism Studies 11 (1): 36–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henderson, J.C. (2007) Uniquely Singapore? A case study in destination branding. Journal of Vacation Marketing 13 (3): 261–274.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herstein, R. and Jaffe, E.D. (2008) The children's city – The transition from a negative to a positive city image. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 4 (1): 76–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hirschman, E.C. (1981) American Jewish ethnicity: Its relationship to some selected aspects of consumer behavior. Journal of Marketing 45 (3): 102–110.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holden, J. (2007) Thought piece: Creative cities. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 3 (4): 287–290.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hornskov, S.B. (2007) On the management of authenticity: Culture in the place branding of Øresund. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 3 (4): 317–331.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hosany, S., Ekinci, Y. and Uysal, M. (2006) Destination image and destination personality: An application of branding theories to tourism places. Journal of Business Research 59 (5): 638–642.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hospers, G. (2004) Place marketing in Europe: The branding of the Oresund Region. Intereconomics 39 (5): 271–279.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hospers, G. (2009) Lynch, Urry and city marketing: Taking advantage of the city as a built and graphic image. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 5 (3): 226–233.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ikuta, T., Yukawa, K. and Hamasaki, H. (2007) Regional branding measures in Japan – Efforts in 12 major prefectural and city governments. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 3 (2): 131–143.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Insch, A. and Florek, M. (2008) A great place to live, work and play: Conceptualising place satisfaction in the case of a city's residents. Journal of Place Management and Development 1 (2): 138–149.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobsen, B.P. (2009) Investor-based place brand equity: A theoretical framework. Journal of Place Management and Development 2 (1): 70–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jiwa, S., Coca-Stefaniak, J.A., Blackwell, M. and Rahman, T. (2009) Light Night: An “enlightening” place marketing experience. Journal of Place Management and Development 2 (2): 154–166.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johansson, J. (2005) The new “Brand America”. Place Branding 1 (2): 155–163.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, T., Nagata, S., Nakajima, M. and Masuyama, K. (2009) Prefectural branding in Japan – Tourism, national parks and the Shinshu brand. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 5 (3): 192–201.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kavaratzis, M. (2004) From city marketing to city branding: Towards a theoretical framework for developing city brands. Place Branding 1 (1): 58–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kavaratzis, M. (2009) Cities and their brands: Lessons from corporate branding. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 5 (1): 26–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kavaratzis, M. and Ashworth, G.J. (2006) City branding: An effective assertion of identity or a transitory marketing trick? Place Branding 2 (3): 183–194.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kavaratzis, M. and Ashworth, G.J. (2008) Place marketing: How did we get here and where are we going? Journal of Place Management and Development 1 (2): 150–165.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kemming, J.D. and Sandikci, Ö . (2007) Turkey's EU accession as a question of nation brand image. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 3 (1): 31–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kerr, G. and Johnson, S. (2005) A review of a brand management strategy for a small town – Lessons learnt. Place Branding 1 (4): 373–387.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klein, G., Ettenson, R. and Morris, M.D. (1998) The animosity model of foreign product purchase: An empirical test in the People's Republic of China. Journal of Marketing 62 (1): 89–100.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kokosalakis, C., Bagnall, G., Selby, M. and Burns, S. (2006) Place image and urban regeneration in Liverpool. International Journal of Consumer Studies 30 (4): 389–397.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Konecnik, M. and Go, F. (2008) Tourism destination brand identity: The case of Slovenia. Journal of Brand Management 15 (3): 177–189.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kotler, P. and Gertner, D. (2002) Country as brand, product, and beyond: A place marketing and brand management perspective. Journal of Brand Management 9 (4/5): 249–261.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kotler, P., Haider, D. and Rein, I. (1993) There's no place like our place! The marketing of cities, regions, and nations. The Futurist 27 (6): 14–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kotler, P., Haider, D. and Rein, I. (1994) There's no place like our place! Public Management 76 (2): 15–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kotler, P. et al (2004) Where is place branding heading? Place Branding 1 (1): 12–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laaksonnen, P., Laaksonen, M., Borisov, P. and Halkoaho, J. (2006) Measuring image of a city: A qualitative approach with case example. Place Branding 2 (3): 210–219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lau, F. and Leung, A. (2005) Design and city branding – From school to city. Place Branding 1 (3): 265–272.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, H. and Jain, D. (2009) Dubai's brand assessment success and failure in brand management – Part 1. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 5 (3): 234–246.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, H.J. (2009) Dubai's brand assessment success and failure in brand management – Part 2: Negative factors reduce Dubai's competitiveness. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 5 (4): 312–324.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, S., Toth, E.L. and Shin, H. (2008) Cognitive categorisation and routes of national reputation formation: US opinion leaders’ views on South Korea. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 4 (4): 272–286.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, S.-A. (2005) Branding Korea. International Trade Forum 4: 23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lin, Y.-S. and Huang, J.-J. (2006) Marketing of South Korean tourism using TV miniseries. The Business Review, Cambridge 5 (1): 61–65.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lin, Y.-S. and Huang, J.-J. (2008) Analyzing the use of TV miniseries for Korea tourism marketing. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing 24 (2/3): 223–227.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, S.S. and Johnson, J.K. (2005) The automatic country of origin effects on brand judgments. Journal of Advertising 34 (1): 87–97.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lodge, C. (2002) Success and failure: The brand stories of two countries. Journal of Brand Management 9 (4/5): 372–384.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Loo, T. and Davies, G. (2006) Branding China: The ultimate challenge in reputation management? Corporate Reputation Review 9 (3): 198–210.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Manrai, L.A. and Manrai, A.K. (1993) Positioning European countries as brands in a perceptual map: An empirical study of determinants of consumer perceptions and preferences. Journal of Euromarketing 2 (3): 101–129.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martinovic, S. (2002) Branding Hrvatska - A mixed blessing that might succeed: The advantage of being unrecognizable. Journal of Brand Management 9 (4/5): 315–322.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mayes, R. (2008) A place in the sun: The politics of place, identity and branding. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 4 (2): 124–135.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McClinchey, K.A. (2008) Urban ethnic festivals, neighborhoods, and the multiple realities of marketing place. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing 25 (3/4): 251–264.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Medway, D. and Warnaby, G. (2008) Alternative perspectives on marketing and the place brand. European Journal of Marketing 42 (5/6): 641–665.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Merrilees, B., Miller, D. and Herington, C. (2009) Antecedents of residents’ city brand attitudes. Journal of Business Research 62 (3): 362–367.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Metaxas, T. (2009) Place marketing, strategic planning and competitiveness: The case of Malta. European Planning Studies 17 (9): 1357–1378.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mihailovich, P. (2006) Kinship branding: A concept of holism and evolution for the nation brand. Place Branding 2 (3): 229–247.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mok Kim Man, M. and Arias-Bolzmann, L. (2007) The need for capitalizing on the value of a brand name: The case of Sabah State in Malaysia. The Business Review, Cambridge 9 (1): 153–158.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morgan, N., Pritchard, A. and Piggott, R. (2002) New Zealand, 100% Pure. The creation of a powerful niche destination brand. Journal of Brand Management 9 (4/5): 335–354.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mossberg, L. and Kleppe, I.A. (2005) Country and destination image – Different or similar concepts? The Service Industries Journal 25 (4): 493–503.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mulyanegara, R.C., Tsarenko, Y. and Anderson, A. (2009) The Big Five and brand personality: Investigating the impact of consumer personality on preferences towards particular brand personality. Journal of Brand Management 16 (4): 234–247.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, L., Moscardo, G. and Benckendorff, P. (2007) Using brand personality to differentiate regional tourism destinations. Journal of Travel Research 46 (1): 5–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Negrete, M.P. (2009) Santa Fe: A “global enclave” in Mexico City. Journal of Place Management and Development 2 (1): 33–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nel, E. and Binns, T. (2002) Place marketing, tourism promotion, and community-based local economic development in post-apartheid South-Africa: The case of Still Bay – The “Bay of Sleeping Beauty”. Urban Affairs Review 38 (2): 184–208.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nobili, V. (2005) The role of European capital of culture events within Genoa's and Liverpool's branding and positioning efforts. Place Branding 1 (3): 316–328.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Noya, J. (2006) The symbolic power of nations. Place Branding 2 (1): 53–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nuttavuthisit, K. (2007) Branding Thailand: Correcting the negative image of sex tourism. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 3 (1): 21–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O'Connor, N., Flanagan, S. and Gilbert, D. (2008) The integration of film-induced tourism and destination branding in Yorkshire, UK. The International Journal of Tourism Research 10 (5): 423–437.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Olins, W. (2002) Branding the nation – The historical context. Journal of Brand Management 9 (4/5): 241–248.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ooi, C.-S. (2008) Reimagining Singapore as a creative nation: The politics of place branding. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 4 (4): 287–302.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Opoku, R. and Hinson, R. (2006) Online brand personalities: An exploratory analysis of selected African countries. Place Branding 2 (2): 118–129.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O'Shaughnessy, J. and O'Shaughnessy, N.J. (2000) Treating the nation as a brand: Some neglected issues. Journal of Macromarketing 20 (1): 56–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Page, S.J. and Hardyman, R. (1996) Place marketing and town centre management: A new tool for urban revitalization. Cities 13 (3): 153–164.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pahud De Mortanges, C. and Van der Weg, M. (1999) Country marketing in the United Kingdom and the Netherlands: Two case studies. Journal of Euro-Marketing 7 (3): 43–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pant, D.R. (2005) A place brand strategy for the Republic of Armenia: ‘Quality of context’ and ‘sustainability’ as competitive advantage. Place Branding 1 (3): 273–282.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Papadopoulos, N. (2004) Place branding: Evolution, meaning and implications. Place Branding 1 (1): 36–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Papadopoulos, N. and Heslop, L. (2000) Countries as brands: Canadian products abroad. Ivey Business Journal 65 (2): 30–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Papadopoulos, N. and Heslop, L. (2002) Country equity and country branding: Problems and prospects. Journal of Brand Management 9 (4/5): 294–314.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Park, A. (2009) Selling a small state to the world: Lithuania's struggle in building its national image. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 5 (1): 67–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parkerson, B. (2007) From schlock to hot: Shifting perceptions of Brooklyn. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 3 (4): 263–267.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parkerson, B. and Saunders, J. (2005) City branding: Can goods and services branding models be used to brand cities? Place Branding 1 (3): 242–264.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paskaleva-Shapira, K.A. (2007) New paradigms in city tourism management: Redefining destination promotion. Journal of Travel Research 46 (1): 108–114.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pecotich, A. and Ward, S. (2007) Global branding, country of origin and expertise: An experimental evaluation. International Marketing Review 24 (3): 271–296.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peel, D. and Lloyd, M.G. (2007) Towards another place? The regulation of artwork and place re-branding. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 3 (4): 268–279.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peel, D. and Lloyd, M.G. (2008) New communicative challenges: Dundee, place branding and the reconstruction of a city image. The Town Planning Review 79 (5): 507–532.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peirce, S. and Ritchie, B.W. (2007) National capital branding: A comparative case study of Canberra, Australia and Wellington, New Zealand. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing 22 (3/4): 67–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pike, S. (2007) Consumer-based brand equity for destinations: Practical DMO performance measures. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing 22 (1): 51–61.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pryor, S. and Grossbart, S. (2007) Creating meaning on main street: Towards a model of place branding. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 3 (4): 291–304.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Quelch, J. and Jocz, K. (2005) Positioning the nation-state. Place Branding 1 (3): 229–237.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rausch, A. (2008) Place branding in rural Japan: Cultural commodities as local brands. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 4 (2): 136–146.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rawson, E.A.G. (2007) Perceptions of the United States of America: Exploring the political brand of a nation. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 3 (3): 213–221.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rein, I. and Shields, B. (2007) Place branding sports: Strategies for differentiating emerging, transitional, negatively viewed and newly industrialised nations. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 3 (1): 73–85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reiser, D. and Crispin, S. (2009) Local perceptions of the reimaging process: The case of the Sullivans Cove waterfront precinct. Journal of Place Management and Development 2 (2): 109–124.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, D., Mort, G.S. and Hume, M. (2009) Analysis of management narrative to understand social marketing strategy: The case of ‘Branding Logan City’. Australasian Marketing Journal 17 (4): 232–237.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, J. and Silvanto, S. (2009) The World Heritage List: The making and management of a brand. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 5 (4): 290–300.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Singleton, H. and McKenzie, F.H. (2008) The re-branding imperative for the Western Australian Pilbara region: Status quo to transformative cultural interpretations of local housing and settlement for a competitive geo-regional identity. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 4 (1): 8–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skinner, H. (2005) Wish you were here? Some problems associated with integrating marketing communications when promoting place brands. Place Branding 1 (3): 299–315.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skinner, H. (2008) The emergence and development of place marketing's confused identity. Journal of Marketing Management 24 (9): 915–928.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skinner, H. and Kubacki, K. (2007) Unraveling the complex relationship between nationhood, national and cultural identity, and place branding. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 3 (4): 305–316.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stock, F. (2009a) The Borat effect. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 5 (3): 180–191.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stock, F. (2009b) Identity, image and brand: A conceptual framework. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 5 (2): 118–125.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stone, R. (2005) To keep all interests happy, Madison, Wisconsin seeks to identify with higher-level benefits. Place Branding 1 (3): 238–241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Supphellen, M. and Nygaardsvik, I. (2002) Testing country brand slogans: Conceptual development and empirical illustration of a simple normative model. Journal of Brand Management 9 (4/5): 385–395.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Szondi, G. (2007) The role and challenges of country branding in transition countries: The Central and Eastern European experience. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 3 (1): 8–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tatevossian, A.R. (2008) Domestic society's (often-neglected) role in nation branding. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 4 (2): 182–190.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trueman, M.M., Cook, D. and Cornelius, N. (2008) Creative dimensions for branding and regeneration: Overcoming negative perceptions of a city. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 4 (1): 29–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trueman, M.M., Cornelius, N. and Killingbeck-Widdup, A.J. (2007) Urban corridors and the lost city: Overcoming negative perceptions to reposition city brands. Journal of Brand Management: Special Issue: Corporate Marketing and the branding of the Organisation 15 (1): 20–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Ham, P. (2008) Place branding within a security paradigm – Concepts and cases. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 4 (3): 240–251.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vasudevan, S. (2008) The role of internal stakeholders in destination branding: Observations from Kerala Tourism. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 4 (4): 331–335.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Viosca Jr, R.C., Bergiel, B.J. and Balsmeier, P. (2005) Country equity: South Africa, a case in point. Journal of Promotion Management 12 (1): 85–95.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Virgo, B. and de Chernatony, L. (2006) Delphic brand visioning to align stakeholder buy-in to the City of Birmingham brand. Journal of Brand Management 13 (6): 379–392.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vitiello, R. and Willcocks, M. (2006) The difference is in the detail: Its potential as a place branding tool and impact upon perceptions and responses. Place Branding 2 (3): 248–262.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wagner, O. and Peters, M. (2009) Can association methods reveal the effects of internal branding on tourism destination stakeholders? Journal of Place Management and Development 2 (1): 52–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, J. (2006) Localising public diplomacy: The role of sub-national actors in nation branding. Place Branding 2 (1): 32–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, J. (2008) Guest editorial. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 4 (4): 270–271.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wanjiru, E. (2006) Branding African countries: A prospect for the future. Place Branding 2 (1): 84–95.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Warnaby, G. (2008) Why place marketers should understand cartography: Future avenues for research. Journal of Place Management and Development 1 (2): 214–226.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Warnaby, G. (2009a) Non-place marketing: Transport hubs as gateways, flagships and symbols? Journal of Place Management and Development 2 (3): 211–219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Warnaby, G. (2009b) Towards a service-dominant place marketing logic. Marketing Theory 9 (4): 403–423.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Warnaby, G. and Bennison, D. (2006) Reciprocal urban place marketing and co-branding? Retail applications. Place Branding 2 (4): 297–310.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Warnaby, G. and Medway, D. (2004) The role of place marketing as a competitive response by town centres to out-of-town retail developments. International Review of Retail, Distribution and Consumer Research 14 (4): 457–477.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watkins, S., Hassanien, A. and Dale, C. (2006) Exploring the image of the Black Country as a tourist destination. Place Branding 2 (4): 321–333.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wetzel, F. (2006) Brand England. Place Branding 2 (2): 144–154.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Widler, J. (2007) Nation branding: With pride against prejudice. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 3 (2): 144–150.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wills, D. and Moore, C. (2008) Securitising the Caucasus: From political violence to place branding in Chechnya. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 4 (3): 252–262.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, K.-L. (2008) Developing a paradigm and strategies for sustainable place marketing: The experience of Taiwan. Journal of American Academy of Business, Cambridge 13 (1): 45–52.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ying, F. (2006) Branding the nation: What is being branded? Journal of Vacation Marketing 12 (1): 5–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Youde, J. (2009) Selling the state: State branding as a political resource in South Africa. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 5 (2): 126–140.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Young, C. (2005) Meeting the new foreign direct investment challenge in East and Central Europe: Place marketing strategies in Hungary. Environment and Planning C: Government Policy 23 (5): 733–757.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zenker, S. (2009) Who's your target? The creative class as a target group for place branding. Journal of Place Management and Development 2 (1): 23–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zerrillo, P.C. and Thomas, G.M. (2007) Developing brands and emerging markets: An empirical application. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 3 (1): 86–99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, J. (2008) Making sense of the changes in China's public diplomacy: Direction of information flow and messages. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 4 (4): 303–316.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Additional information

1obtained his PhD and joined Pace University, New York, in 2001, after visiting and serving as professor and program chair in several universities in Brazil and the United States. Throughout his extensive career, he has consulted for many companies, served on various organizational boards and actively participated in a number of professional associations. He has published and presented more than a hundred articles, book chapters and essays at conferences in several countries. In addition, he has co-authored a book on Marketing Latin American and Caribbean Places and has various book projects and research projects in the works. His research interests include place marketing and branding and international marketing.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Gertner, D. A (tentative) meta-analysis of the ‘place marketing’ and ‘place branding’ literature. J Brand Manag 19, 112–131 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1057/bm.2011.13

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/bm.2011.13

Keywords

Navigation