Abstract
The manipulation of religious beliefs (and civilizational movements) represents a form of strategic leverage used by elites throughout history. Yet, the manipulation of religious belief represents an aspect of strategic leveraging that generally went unrecognized during the cold war but that has come to haunt the world in the post-cold war era. In particular, U.S., Saudi, and Pakistani support for militant Sunni pan-Islamist forces in Afghanistan against the brutal Soviet intervention (provoked in part by the United States) has set forth a chain reaction among a number of political and social movements and countermovements that now appears nearly impossible to control.
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Notes
Gal Luft and Anne Korin, “Terror’s Next Target,” Journal of International Security Affairs (December 2003).
Mark Duffield, Global Governance and the New Wars (London: Zed, 2001), chapter 7.
As Moscow makes a near 150 percent profit on gas it buys from Kazakhstan and then distributes to Europe, the EU hoped to cut Russia out of the equation so as to reduce its dependency. Melissa Hahn, “Moscow Achieves Success with Kazakh Oil Deal,” PINR (May 29, 2007). “Current Geostrategy in the South Caucasus,” PINR (December 15, 2006). http://www.pinr.com.
Paul Rogers “US, Iran: The fire next time” (May 29, 2007) http://www.isn.ethz.ch/news/sw/details.cfm?id=17665.
On naval strategy and the war on terrorism (seen as a two front war, with psychological and physical fronts), see Randall G. Bowdish, “Global Terrorism, Strategy, and Naval Forces,” chapter 5 in Sam J. Tangredi, ed., Globalization and Maritime Power, National Defense University, 2002. http://www.ndu.edu/inss/Books/Books 2002/Globalization_and_Maritime_Power_Dec_02/01_toc.htm.
On the roots of U.S. policy toward South Africa, see Chester A. Crocker, “South Africa: Strategy for Change,” Foreign Affairs (Winter 1980–81).
Edward Jay Epstein, “Who Killed Zia?” Vanity Fair (September 1989). http://edwardjayepstein.com/archived/zia.htm.
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Amin Tarzi, “Pakistan Hails North Waziristan Peace Deal,” RFE/RL, October 24, 2006. See Crisis Group critique of “appeasement” in “Pakistan’s Tribal Areas.” http://www.crisisgroup.org/library/documents/asia/south_asia/125_pakistans_tribal_areas appeasing_the_militants.pdf. Yet, is democratization necessarily the salvation?
Ashley J. Tellis, C. Christine Fair, and Jamison Jo Medby, Limited Conflicts Under the Nuclear Umbrella: Indian and Pakistani Lessons from the Kargil Crisis (Santa Monica, RAND: 2002). http://www.rand.org/pubs/monograph_reports/MR1450/.
For background on Kashmir, see Howard B. Schaffer and Teresita C. Schaffer in Grasping the Nettle, eds. Crocker, Hampson, and Aall (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 2005).
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John Prendergast, “So How Come We Haven’t Stopped It?” Washington Post, November 19, 2006. “The deepening intelligence-sharing relationship between Washington and Khartoum blunted any U.S. response to the state-sponsored violence that exploded in Darfur in 2003 and 2004…. And since 2001, the administration had been pursuing a peace deal between southern Sudanese rebels and the regime in Khartoum—a deal aimed at placating U.S. Christian groups that had long demanded action on behalf of Christian minorities in southern Sudan. The administration didn’t want to undermine that process by hammering Khartoum over Darfur.” For background on Sudan,
see J. Stephen Morrison and Alex de Waal in Grasping the Nettle, eds. Crocker, Hampson, and Aall (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 2005).
Eboe Hutchful and Kwesi Aning, in West Africa’s Security Challenges, ed. Adekeye Adebajo and Ismail Rashid, p. 211 (Boulder, CO: Rienner, 2004).
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Michael Deibert, “Following Oil Boom, Biofuel Eyed In Africa” (IPS) July 13 2007
Adekeye Adebajo, in Adekeye Adebajo and Ismail Rashid, West Africa’s Security Challenges, chapter 13 (Boulder, CO: Rienner, 2004).
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© 2007 Hall Gardner
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Gardner, H. (2007). An Ever-widening Zone of Conflict, Terrorism, and Black Market Activities: From Central Asia to Sub-Saharan Africa. In: Averting Global War. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230608733_7
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