Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Relationship Between Homework and Achievement—Still Much of a Mystery

  • Published:
Educational Psychology Review Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Despite the long history of homework and homework research, the role that homework plays in enhancing student achievement is, at best, only partly understood. In this review, we give an overview of twentieth-century homework research and discuss the reasons why the relationship between homework and achievement remains unclear. We identify the operationalization of homework and achievement and the problematic handling of hierarchically ordered data as two important factors affecting the validity of many of the studies performed over the last century. We then describe a new generation of homework studies using multilevel modeling to deal with hierarchically nested data. Finally, we argue that homework research should be more closely connected to well-founded psychological theories of learning and instruction, and we offer three potential links (theories of instruction time, self-regulation theory and expectancy-value theory, and teaching behavior).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Beaton, A. E., Mullis, I. V. S., Martin, M. O., Gonzalez, E. J., Kelly, D. L., and Smith, T. A. (1996). Mathematics Achievement in the Middle School Years: IEA's Third International Mathematics and Science Study, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Betts, J. (1998). The two-legged stool: The neglected role of educational standards in improving America's public schools. Econ. Policy Rev. 4: 97-116.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boekaerts, M. (1999). Self-regulated learning: Where we are today. Int. J. Educ. Res. 31: 445-457.

    Google Scholar 

  • British Educational Research Association (1999). Homework, common sense, politics and the defence of research. Res. Intell. 70: 24-25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brophy, J., and Good, T. (1986). Teacher behavior and student achievement. In: Wittrock, M. C. (ed.), Handbook of Research on Teaching (3rd Ed.), Macmillan, New York, pp. 328-375.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brunstein, J. C., and Spörer, N. (2001). Selbstgesteuertes Lernen [Self-regulated learning]. In: Rost, J. (ed.), Handwörterbuch Pädagogische Psychologie, Beltz, Weinheim, Germany, pp. 622-629.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bryk, A. S., and Raudenbush, S. W. (1992). Hierarchical Linear Models: Applications and Data Analysis Methods, Sage, Newbury Park, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Byrne, B. (1998). Structural Equation Modeling with LISREL, PRELIS, and SIMPLIS: Basic Concepts, Applications, and Programming, Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carroll, J. B. (1963). A model of school learning. Teach. Coll. Rec. 64: 723-733.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carroll, J. B. (1984). The model of school learning: Progress of an idea. In: Anderson, L. W. (ed.), Time and School Learning, Croom Helm, London, pp. 15-45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chou, H.-W. (1991). The investigation of a LISREL achievement model. Chin. J. Psychol. 33: 59-75.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cool, V., and Keith, T. Z. (1991). Testing a model of school learning: Direct and indirect effects on academic achievement. Contemp. Educ. Psychol. 16: 28-44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, H. (1989). Homework, Longman, White Plains, NY.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, H., and Valentine, J. C. (2001). Using research to answer practical questions about homework. Educ. Psychol. 36: 143-153.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, H., Lindsay, J. J., Nye, B., and Greathouse, S. (1998). Relationships among attitudes about homework, amount of homework assigned and completed, and student achievement. J. Educ. Psychol. 90: 70-83.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, H., Valentine, J. C., Nye, B., and Lindsay, J. J. (1999). Relationships between five after-school activities and academic achievement. J. Educ. Psychol. 91: 369-378.

    Google Scholar 

  • Corno, L. (1980). Individual and class level effects of parent-assisted instruction in classroom memory support strategies. J. Educ. Psychol. 72: 278-292.

    Google Scholar 

  • Corno, L. (1994). Student volition and education: Outcomes, influences, and practices. In: Schunk, D. H., and Zimmerman, B. J. (eds.), Self-Regulation of Learning and Performance, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, pp. 229-251.

    Google Scholar 

  • Corno, L. (1996). Homework is a complicated thing. Educ. Res. 25(8): 27-30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Corno, L. (2000). Looking at homework differently. Elem. Sch. J. 100: 529-548.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coulter, F. (1979). Homework: A neglected research area. Br. Educ. Res. J. 5: 21-33.

    Google Scholar 

  • De Jong, R., Westerhof, K. J., and Creemers, B. P. M. (2000). Homework and student math achievement in junior high schools. Educ. Res. Eval. 6: 130-157.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eccles, J. S., and Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goal. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 53: 109-132.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., and Meece, J. L. (1984). Sex differences in achievement: A test of alternate theories. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 46: 26-43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elawar, M. C., and Corno, L. (1985). A factorial experiment in teachers' written feedback on student homework: Changing teacher behavior a little rather than a lot. J. Educ. Psychol. 77: 162-173.

    Google Scholar 

  • Epstein, J. L., and van Voorhis, F. L. (2001). More than minutes: Teachers' roles in designing homework. Educ. Psychol. 36: 181-193.

    Google Scholar 

  • Farrow, S., Tymms, P., and Henderson, B. (1999). Homework and attainment in primary schools. Br. Educ. Res. J. 25: 323-341.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fend, H. (1998). Eltern und Freunde [Parents and peers], Hans Huber, Bern, Switzerland.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gill, B., and Schlossman, S. (1996). A sin against childhood: Progressive education and the crusade to abolish homework, 1897–1941. Am. J. Educ. 105: 27-66.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldstein, H. (1995). Multilevel Statistical Models, Edward Arnold, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haag, L., and Mischo, C. (2002). Saisonarbeiter in der Schule–einem Phänomen auf der Spur [On the trail of a phenomenon: Casual learners]. Z. Pädagog. Psychol. 16: 109-116.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harding, R. C. (1979). The Relationship of Teacher Attitudes Toward Homework and the Academic Achievement of Primary Grade Students. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoover-Dempsey, K. V., Battiato, A. C., Walker, J. M. T., Reed, R. P., DeJong, J. M., and Jones, K. P. (2001). Parental involvement in homework. Educ. Psychol. 36: 195-209.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hox, J. J., and Kreft, I. G. G. (1994). Multilevel analysis methods. Sociol. Methods Res. 22: 283-299.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keith, T. Z. (1982). Time spent on homework and high school grades: A large-sample path analysis. J. Educ. Psychol. 74: 248-253.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keith, T. Z. (1988). Using path analysis to test the importance of manipulable influences on school learning. Sch. Psychol. Rev. 17: 637-643.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keith, T. Z., and Cool, V. A. (1992). Testing models of school learning: Effects of quality of instruction, motivation, academic coursework, and homework on academic achievement. Sch. Psychol. Q. 3: 207-226.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keith, T. Z., and Page, E. B. (1985). Homework works at school: National evidence for policy changes. Sch. Psychol. Rev. 3: 351-359.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keith, T. Z., Reimers, T. M., Fehrmann, P. G., Pottebaum, S. M., and Aubey, L. W. (1986). Parental involvement, homework, and TV time: Direct and indirect effects on high school achievement. J. Educ. Psychol. 78: 373-380.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keith, T. Z., Keith, P. B., Troutman, G. C., Bickley, P. G., Trivette, P. S., and Singh, K. (1993). Does parental involvement affect eighth-grade student achievement? Structural analysis of national data. Sch. Psychol. Rev. 22: 474-496.

    Google Scholar 

  • Köller, O., and Schümer, G. (1998). Why did Japanese students do so well in TIMSS? Results from the TIMSS Videotape Study and information about the educational system in Japan. Newsl. Int. Soc. Study Behav. Dev. 33: 7-8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levin, J. R., and Peterson, P. L. (1984). Classroom aptitude-by-treatment interactions: An alternative analysis strategy. Educ. Psychol. 19: 43-47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Muhlenbruck, L., Cooper, H., Nye, B., and Lindsay, J. J. (2000). Homework and achievement: Explaining the different strengths of relation at the elementary and secondary school levels. Soc. Psychol. Educ. 3: 295-317.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mullis, I. V. S., Martin, M. O., Beaton, A. E., Gonzalez, E. J., Kelly, D. L., and Smith, T. A. (1998). Mathematics and Science Achievement in the Final Year of Secondary School: IEA's Third International Mathematics and Science Study, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Natriello, G., and McDill, E. L. (1986). Performance standards, student effort on homework, and academic achievement. Sociol. Educ. 59: 18-31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nilshon, I. (2001). Hausaufgaben [Homework]. In: Rost, D. H. (ed.), Handwörterbuch Pädagogische Psychologie, Beltz, Weinheim, Germany, pp. 231-238.

    Google Scholar 

  • OECD (2001). Knowledge and Skills for Life: First Results from the OECD Programme for International Student Assessment, OECD, Paris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Palardy, J. M. (1995). Another look at homework: Homework is one of the most haphazard teaching practices in American schools today. Principal 74: 32-33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paschal, R. A., Weinstein, T., and Walberg, H. J. (1984). The effects of homework on learning: A quantitative synthesis. J. Educ. Res. 78: 97-104.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pintrich, P. R. (1999). The role of motivation in promoting and sustaining self-regulated learning. Int. J. Educ. Res. 31: 459-470.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raudenbush, S. W., Bryk, A. S., Cheong, Y. F., and Congdon, R. T. (2000). HLM 5 [computer program], Scientific Software International, Lincolnwood, IL.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rickards, J. P. (1982). Homework. In: Encyclopedia of Educational Research (5th Ed., Vol. 2), Free Press, New York, pp. 831-834.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmitz, B., and Skinner, E. (1993). Perceived control, effort, and academic performance: Interindividual, intraindividual, and multivariate time-series analyses. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 64: 1010-1028.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stright, A. D., Neitzel, C., Sears, K. G., and Hoke-Sinex, L. (2001). Instruction begins in the home: Relations between parental instruction and children's self-regulation in the classroom. J. Educ. Psychol. 93: 456-466.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trautwein, U., and Köller, O. (2002). Homework in Mathematics and English as a Foreign Language: Evidence for Effects on the Development of Achievement and Interest, Unpublished manuscript.

  • Trautwein, U., Köller, O., Schmitz, B., and Baumert, J. (2002). Do homework assignments enhance achievement? A multilevel analysis in 7th-grade mathematics. Contemp. Educ. Psychol. 27: 26-50.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tymms, P. B., and Fitz-Gibbon, C. T. (1992). The relationship of homework to A-level results. Educ. Res. 34: 3-10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wagner, P., and Spiel, C. (1999). Arbeitszeit für die Schule–zu Variabilität und Determinanten [Variability and determinants of school-related working time at home]. Empir. Pädagog. 13: 123-150.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walberg, H. J. (1991). Does homework help? Sch. Community J. 1: 13-15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walberg, H. J., and Paschal, R. A. (1995). Homework. In: Anderson, L. W. (ed.), International Encyclopaedia of Teaching and Teacher Education, Elsevier, Oxford, pp. 268-271.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walberg, H. J., Paschal, R. A., and Weinstein, T. (1985). Homework's powerful effects on learning. Educ. Leadersh. 42: 76-79.

    Google Scholar 

  • Warton, P. M. (1997). Learning about responsibility: Lessons from homework. Br. J. Educ. Psychol. 67: 213-221.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weinert, F. E., and Helmke, A. (1995a). Interclassroom differences in instructional quality and interindividual differences in cognitive development. Educ. Psychol. 30: 15-20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weinert, F. E., and Helmke, A. (1995b). Learning from wise mother nature or big brother instructor: The wrong choice as seen from an educational perspective. Educ. Psychol. 30: 135-142.

    Google Scholar 

  • Xu, J., and Corno, L. (1998). Case studies of families doing third-grade homework. Teach. Coll. Rec. 100: 402-436.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, B. J., Bonner, S., and Kovach, R. (1996). Developing Self-Regulated Learners: Beyond Achievement to Self-Efficacy, American Psychological Association, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin, Germany

    Ulrich Trautwein

  2. Friedrich Alexander University, Erlangen-Nuremberg, Germany

    Olaf Köller

Authors
  1. Ulrich Trautwein
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Olaf Köller
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ulrich Trautwein.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Trautwein, U., Köller, O. The Relationship Between Homework and Achievement—Still Much of a Mystery. Educational Psychology Review 15, 115–145 (2003). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023460414243

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023460414243

Search

Navigation