Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Development of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) in a Sample of Child Witnesses to Mother Assault

  • Published:
Journal of Family Violence Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This exploratory study examined the relationship between the development of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and a number of coping variables in child witnesses to mother assault. The sample consisted of 84 children (mean age 11 years) who had been referred from shelters for battered women and child welfare agencies. Comparisons of those who met PTSD criteria (n = 47) and those who did not meet PTSD criteria (n = 37) found significant differences on variables of age, duration, and frequency of witnessing children. Child self-report instruments indicated that the PTSD group differed significantly from the non-PTSD group on the basis of assault anxiety, depression, dissociation, anger, and negative attributions. Hierarchical multiple regression analysis indicated that factors related to negative attributions and assault variables each contributed significantly to explaining 71% of the variance of PTSD symptoms, after the variables of age and sex were controlled. Discriminant function analysis correctly classified 84.3% of the respondents. The relevance of PTSD to child witnesses is considered, along with study limitations.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

REFERENCES

  • Amaya-Jackson, L., & March, J. S. (1995). Posttraumtic stress disorder. In March, J. S. (Ed.), Anxiety Disorders in Children and Adolescents, Guilford Press, New York, (pp. 276–300).

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association (1987). Diagnostic And Statistical Manual Of Mental Disorders (3rd. ed., rev.). Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic And Statistical Manual Of Mental Disorders (4th ed.) Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arroyo, W., and Eth, S. (1995). Assessment following violence-witnessing trauma. In Peled, E., Jaffe, P. G., and Edelson, J. L. (eds.), Ending The Cycle Of Violence: Community Responses To Children Of Battered Women, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA, pp. 27–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Birt, J. (1992). Childhood dissociative checklist-child form. Unpublished questionnaire. Children's Hospital of Western Ontario, London, Ontario.

  • Black, D., and Kaplan, T. (1988). Father kills mother. Brit. J. Psychiatry 153: 624–630.

    Google Scholar 

  • Black, D., Hendriks, J. H., and Kaplan, T. (1992). Father kills mother: Post-traumatic stress disorder in the children. Psychother. Psychosomat. 57: 152–157.

    Google Scholar 

  • Black, D., Kaplan, T., and Hendriks, J. H. (1993). Father kills mother: Effects on the children in the united kingdom. In Wilson, J. P., and Raphael, B. (eds.). International Handbook Of Traumatic Stress Syndromes, Plenum Press, New York, pp. 551–559.

    Google Scholar 

  • Briere, J., and Runtz, M. (1989). The trauma symptom checklist (TSC-33): Early data on a new scale. J. Interpers. Viol. 4: 151–163.

    Google Scholar 

  • Briere, J. (1992). Methodological Issues in the study of sexual abuse effects. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 60: 196–203.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burman, S., and Allen-Meares, P. (1994). Neglected Victims of Murder: Children's witness to parental homicide. Social Work 48: 28–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlson, B. (1984). Children's observations of interparental violence. In Roberts, A. (ed.), Battered Women And Their Families, Springer, New York, 147–167.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlson, B. (1990). Adolescent observers of marital violence. J. Fam. Viol. 5: 285–289.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlson, B. (1996). Children of battered women.: Research, Programs, and Services. In Roberts, A. R. (ed.), Helping Battered Women: New Perspectives and Remedies, Oxford University Press, New York, pp. 172–187.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cicchetti, D., and Lynch, M (1993). Toward an ecological/transactional model of community violence and child maltreatment: Consequences for children's development. Psychiatry 56: 96–118.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, L. V., and Carlson, B. (1987). Observation of spouse abuse: What happens to the children? J. Interpers. Viol. 3: 278–291.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elbow, M. (1982). Children of violent marriages: The forgotten victims. Social Casework 63: 465–471.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eth, S., and Pynoos, R.S. (1985). Developmental perspective on psychic trauma in childhood. In Figley, C. R. (ed.) Trauma and Its Wake: The Study and Treatment of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder, Brunner/Mazel Inc., New York, pp. 36–52.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eth, S., and Pynoos, R. S. (1994). Children who witness the Homicide of a parent. Psychiatry 57: 287–306.

    Google Scholar 

  • Famularo, R., Kinscherff, R., and Fenton, T. (1991). Posttraumatic stress disorder among children clinically diagnosed as borderline personality disorder. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 179: 428–431.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fantuzzo, J. W., and Lindquist, U. C. (1989). The effects of observing conjugal violence on children: A review and analysis of research methodology. J. Fam. Viol. 4: 77–94.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fantuzzo, J. W., De Paola, L. M., Lambert, L., Martino, T., Anderson, G., and Sutton, S. (1991). Effects of interparental violence on the psychological adjustment and competencies of young children. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 59: 258–265.

    Google Scholar 

  • Figley, C. R. (1989). Helping Traumatized Families, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fitzpatrick, K. M., and Boldizar, J. P. (1993). The prevalence and consequences of exposure to violence among African-American youth. J. Am. Acad. Child Adol. Psychiatry 32: 424–430.

    Google Scholar 

  • Health and Welfare Canada (1990). Canada's Living Standards. Ottawa: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holaday, M., Armsworth, M. W., Swank, P. R., and Vincent, K.R. (1992). Rorschach responding in traumatized children and adolescents. J. Traum. Stress 5: 119–130.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoshmand, L., and Austin, G. (1987). Validation studies of a multifactor cognitive-behavioral anger control inventory. J. Personal. Assess. 51: 417–432.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, H. M. (1988). Psychological and behavioral correlates of family violence in child witnesses and victims. Am. J. Orthopsychiatry 58: 77–90.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, H. M., Parkinson, D. L., and Vargo, M. C. (1989). Witnessing spouse abuse and experiencing physical abuse: A double whammy? J. Fam. Viol. 4: 197–209.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, H. M., Vargo, M. C., Ito, E. S., and Skinner, S. K. (1991). Psychological adjustment of children of battered women: Influences of gender. Fam. Viol. Bull. 7: 15–17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, H. M. (1997). Research concerning children of battered women: Clinical implications. In Geffner, R., Sorenson, S. B., and Lundberg-Love, P. K. (eds.), Violence and Sexual Abuse at Home: Current Issues, Interventions, and Research in Spousal Battering And Child Maltreatment, Haworth, Binghamton, NY, In Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jaffe, P. G., Wolfe, D., and Wilson, S. (1990). Children of Battered Women, Sage, Newbury Park, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jaffe, P. G., Sudermann, M., and Reitzel, D. (1992). Working with children and adolescents to end the cycle of violence: A social learning approach to intervention and prevention programs. In DeV. Peters, R., McMahon, R. J., and Quinsey, V. L. (eds.), Aggression and Violence Throughout the Lifespan, Sage, Newbury Park, CA, pp. 83–99.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jaffe, P. G., Sudermann, M., and Reitzel, D. (1993). Child witnesses of marital violence. In Ammerman, R. T., and Hersen, N. W. (eds.), Assessment of Family Violence: A Clinical and Legal Sourcebook, Wiley, New York, pp. 313–331.

    Google Scholar 

  • van der Kolk, B. A. (1987). Psychological Trauma, American Psychiatric Press, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kovacs, M. (1983). The Children's Depression Inventory: A self-rated depression scale for school-aged youngsters. Unpublished manuscript.

  • Landis, T. (1989). Children in shelters: An exploration of dissociative processes and traumatization in some children. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Colorado, Boulder.

  • Lanktree, C., and Briere, J. (1992, January). Further data on the Trauma Symptom Checklist for Children (TSC-C): Reliability, validity, and sensitivity to treatment. Paper presented at the San Diego Conference on Responding to Child Maltreatment, San Diego.

  • Lehmann, P. J., and Wolfe, V. V. (1992). History of violence witnessed by child questionnaire. Unpublished questionnaire. Madame Vanier Children's Services, London, Ontario.

  • Lehmann, P., Rabenstein, S., Duff, J., and Van Meyel, R. (1994). A multi-dimensional model for treating families that have survived mother-assault. Contemp. Fam. Ther. 16: 7–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lipovsky, J. A. (1991). Posttraumatic stress disorder in children. Fam. Commun. Health 14: 42–51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lyons, J. A. (1987). Posttraumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents: A review of the literature. Dev. Behav. Pediat. 8: 349–356.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacLeod, L. (1987). Battered but Not Beaten...Preventing Wife Assault in Canada. Canadian Advisory Council On The Status Of Women, Ottawa.

    Google Scholar 

  • Malmquist, C. P. (1986). Children who witness parental murder: Posttraumatic aspects. J. Am. Acad. Child Psychiatry 25: 320–325.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martinez, P., and Richters, J. E. (1993). The nimh community violence project: II. Children's distress symptoms associated with violence exposure. Psychiatry 56: 22–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • McGee, R., Wolfe, D., and Yuen, S. (1991, April). A device for measuring children's and adolescents maltreatment experiences. Paper presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Seattle.

  • O'Keefe, M. (1995). Predictors of child abuse in maritally violent families. J. Interpers. Viol. 10: 3–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Osofsky, J. D., Wewers, S., Hann, D. M., and Fick, A. C. (1993). Chronic community violence: What is happening to our children. Psychiatry 56: 36–45.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Osofsky, J. D., and Fenichel, E. (eds.) (1994). Hurt, Healing, Hope: Caring for Infants and Toddlers in Violent Environments, Zero to Three Publications, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Osofsky, J. D., Cohen, G., and Drell, M. (1995). The effects of trauma on young children: A case of two year old twins. Int. J. Psychoanal. 76: 595–607.

    Google Scholar 

  • Osofsky, J. D., and Fenichel, E. (eds.) (1996). Islands of Safety: Assessing and Treating Young Victims of Violence, Zero to Three Publications, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pruett, K. (1979). Home-based treatment for two infants who witnessed their mother's murder. J. Am. Acad. Child Psychiatry 18: 647–659.

    Google Scholar 

  • Putnam, F. W., Helmers, K., and Trickett, P.K. (1993). Development, reliability, and validity of a child dissociation scale. Child Abuse Negl. 17: 731–739.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pynoos, R. S., and Eth, S. (1984). The child as witness to homicide. J. Social Issues 40(2): 87–108.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pynoos, R. S., and Eth, S. (1985). Children traumatized by witnessing acts of personal violence: Homicide, rape, or suicide behaviour. In Eth, S., and Pynoos, R. (eds.), Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Children, American Psychiatric Press, Inc, Washington, DC, pp. 17–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pynoos, R. S., and Eth, S. (1986). Witness to violence: The child interview. J. Am. Acad. Child Psychiatry 25: 306–319.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pynoos, R. S., and Nader, K. (1988). Children who witness the sexual assaults of their mothers. J. Am. Acad. Child Adol. Psychiatry 27: 567–572.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pynoos, R. S. (1990). Posttraumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents. In Garfinkel, B. D., Carlson, G. A., Weller, E. B. (eds.), Psychiatric Disorders in Children and Adolescents, Saunders Co., Toronto, ON, pp. 48–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pynoos, R. S., and Nader, K. (1993). Issues in the treatment of postraumatic stress in children and adolescents. In Wilson, J. P., and Raphael, B. (eds.), International Handbook Of Traumatic Stress Syndromes, Plenum Press, New York, pp. 535–549.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pynoos, R. S. (1994). Traumatic stress and developmental psychopathology in children and adolescents. In Pynoos, R.S. (ed.), Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Clinical Review, The Sidran Press, Lutherville, MD, pp. 65–98.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pynoos, R. S. (1996). Exposure to catastrophic violence and disaster in childhood. In Pfeffer, C. R. (ed.), Severe Stress And Mental Disturbance in Children, American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC, pp. 181–210.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ribbe, D. P., Lipovsky, J. A., and Freedy, J. R. (1995). Posttraumtic stress disorder. In Eisen, A. R., Kearney, C. A., and Schaefer, C. E. (eds.), Clinical Handbook of Anxiety Disorders in Children and Adolescents, Jason Aronson, Inc, Northvale, NJ, pp. 317–356.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richman, N. (1993). Annotation: Children in situations of political violence. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 34: 1286–1302.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richters, J. E., and Martinez, P. (1993). The NIMH community violence project: 1. Children as victims and witnesses to violence. Psychiatry 56: 7–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, M. S., and Rossman, B. B. (1990). The child witness to marital violence. In Ammerman, R. T., and Hersen, H. (eds.), Treatment of Family Violence: A Sourcebook, John Wiley, New York, pp. 182–210.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rossman, B. B. (1994). Children in violent families: Diagnostic and treatment considerations. Fam. Viol. Sexual Assault Bull. 10: 29–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scheeringa, M. S., Zeanah, C. H., Drell, M. J., and Larrieu, J. A. (1995). Two approaches to the diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder in infancy and early childhood. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolescent Psychiatry 34: 191–200.

    Google Scholar 

  • Silvern, L., and Kaersvang, L. (1989). The traumatized children of violent marriages. Child Welfare LXVIII: 421–436.

    Google Scholar 

  • Silvern, L., Karyl, J., and Landis, T. Y. (1995). Individual psychotherapy for the traumatized children of abused women. In Peled, E., Jaffe, P. G., and Edleson, J. L. (eds.), Ending The Cycle Of Violence: Community Responses to Children of Battered Women, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA, pp. 43–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Straus, M. (1991, September). Children as witness to marital violence: A risk factor for lifelong problems among a nationally representative sample of American men and women. Paper presented at the Ross Roundtable on Children and Violence, Washington, DC.

  • Terr, L. (1991). Childhood traumas: An outline and overview. Am. J. Psychiatry 140: 10–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolfe, D. A., Jaffe, P. G., Wilson, S., and Zak, L. (1985). Children of battered women: The relation of child behavior to family violence and maternal stress. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 53: 657–665.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolfe, D. A., Jaffe, P. G., Wilson, S., and Zak, L. (1988). A multivariate investigation of children's adjustment to family violence. In Hotaling, G., Finkelhor, D., Kirkpatrick, J., and Straus, M. (eds.), Family Abuse and its Consequences: New Directions in Research, Sage Publications, Newbury Park, CA, pp. 228–243.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolfe, D. A., and Jaffe, P. G. (1991). Child abuse and family violence as determinants of child psychopathology. Can. J. Behav. Sci. 23: 282–299.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolfe, D. A., Sas, L., and Werkerle. (1994). Factors associated with the development of posttraumatic stress disorder among child victims of sexual abuse. Child Abuse Negl. 18: 37–50.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolfe, V. V., Gentile, C., and Klinck, A. (1988). Psychometric properties of the sexual abuse fear evaluation (SAFE), Unpublished manuscript. Children's Hospital of Western Ontario, London, Ontario.

  • Wolfe, V. V., and Gentile, C. (1992). Psychological assessment of sexually abused children. In O'Donohue, W., and Geer, J. (eds.), The Sexual Abuse of Children: Theory, Research, and Therapy, Lawrence Erlbaum, New York, pp. 143–187.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolfe, V. V., and Lehmann, P. (1992). The Children's Impact of Traumatic Events Scale-Family Violence Form (CITES-FVF). Unpublished assessment instrument, Children's Hospital of Western Ontario.

  • Wolfe, V. V., Gentile, C., Michienzi, T., Sas, L., and Wolfe, D. (1991). The children's impact of traumatic events scale: A measure of post-sexual abuse ptsd symptoms. Beh. Assess. 13: 359–383.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolfe, V. V., and Birt, J. (1995). The psychological sequelae of child sexual abuse. Advan. Child Clin. Psychol. 17: 1–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zeanah, C. H., and Burk, (1984). A young child who witnessed her mother's murder: Therapeutic and legal considerations. Am. J. Psychother. 38: 132–145.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Social Work, The University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas, 76019

    Peter Lehmann

Authors
  1. Peter Lehmann
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Lehmann, P. The Development of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) in a Sample of Child Witnesses to Mother Assault. Journal of Family Violence 12, 241–257 (1997). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022842920066

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022842920066

Search

Navigation