Study of water quality, socio-economic status and policy intervention in spring ecosystems of Tripura, Northeast India

Spring is vital in all hilly areas. Without question, springs have aided in the advancement of human civilization. Mountain springs supply water to rural families in the Northeast. This spring ecological study was conducted in Dhalai, Tripura, with socio-economic policy significance. The springs chosen were Jamircherra (JS) and Govindabari (GS). The seasonal features of each spring were studied. The monsoon season is used to bring the life-giving flow of perennial springs. Several water quality indicators like WT, pH, EC, TDS, Turb, TH, DO, BOD, Ca+2, Mg+2, Cl−, No3, Po4 were examined to assess the risk of spring contamination. The most common aberrant results are samples having excessive phosphate (PO42−) and turbidity levels compared to norms. The spring's water quality was tested using the weighted arithmetic index methodology. The water quality at the two springs was adequate but not great throughout the year, causing human deaths from water-borne diseases. Thus, policy implementation was emphasized to save the spring and human life. A physicochemical evaluation of both springs was used to describe a techno-legal component of Environmental regulations.


Laboratory analysis
Thirteen physicochemical water parameters were analyzed. The water temperature (WT), pH, and electric conductivity (EC) of the water samples were measured using a thermometer, a pH meter, and an EC meter, respectively. At the same time, total dissolved solids (TDS) were estimated by the Gravimetric method. Turbidity was analyzed using the HI 98703 precision Turbidity meter. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) samples were kept in an incubator at 20 degrees Celsius for 5 days, and dissolved oxygen (DO) and BOD were estimated using Winkler's method. Other parameters like calcium (Ca 2 ), magnesium (Mg 2 ), total hardness (TH), Phosphate, nitrate, and chloride (Cl) were analyzed using standard methods [2,6]. Furthermore, the current study examined various physicochemical parameters and water quality index (WQI) derived from sample analysis of mountain springs in Tripura, Northeast India (Table 1).

Water quality index
WQI is considered the most practical measuring water quality. It helps to evaluate the water quality status and the suitability of aquatic systems for various purposes. To assess the water quality of JS and GS, the Weighted Arithmetic Water Quality Index (WAWQI) was used for the present study [42].
Total nine environmental variables (pH, EC, TDS, DO, BOD, Turb, TH, NO − 3 , and PO 4 2− ) were used to assess the WQI of the study sites. The following equations were used to calculate WQI as Yadav et al. [42].
The weight (Wi) factors were calculated for each parameter by using the formula where, The quality rating scale (Qi) value was calculated by using the formula Finally, WQI was calculated by using the formula where, Wi = unit weight for each water quality parameter; K = proportionality constant; Vi = concentration of ith parameter in the water sample analyzed Vo = ideal value of parameter in pure water, i.e., Vo = 0 (except pH 7.0 and DO = 14.6 mg L −1 ) Si = recommended standard value of ith parameter [6; 40].The WQI range, status and potentials usages [41] of water sample as shown in Table 2.

Data visualization and statistical analysis
Three seasons viz., Monsoon (Mon), Post Monsoon (PoM), and Pre-Monsoon (PrM), were studied to represent seasonal variations in the selected water parameters [30,31]. To determine the mean value and standard deviation of the data obtained from sampling stations MS Excel 2007 was used. Pearson correlation matrix analysis was also performed to see the relationship among all parameters.

Importance of spring ecosystem
Springs have played critical roles in the evolution of humanity and culture [10]; moreover, many springs are economically significant for drinking, agricultural, and recreational water sources [17,23]. Spring is water from geologic contacts or fractures with below surface aquifers as sources. Spring water may flow for a short distance across the earth's surface. There are different study aspects in the spring ecosystem (Fig. 2). The ecosystem of any spring is

Water quality of spring ecosystem
The analysis of physical characteristics at the JS and GS water provides a valuable insight into the water quality of mountain springs. Table 2 shows the values of water quality parameters, such as WT, pH, Turbidity, EC, and TDS from the present study. The values obtained from our study were compared to BIS [6] and WHO [40]. The chemical and biological characteristics of surface water are influenced by temperature. Some parameters like pH, DO, and BOD levels in water are affected by the weather [22]. The highest WT was found (24.62 ± 1.64; 24.32 ± 1.15 ℃) in monsoon season in both JS and GS and lowest in PoM (19.8 ± 1.10 ℃) at GS as shown in Fig. 3. Both sites showed an acceptable range as per guidelines BIS 10500 [6] and WHO [40].The pH of an aquatic ecosystem is a strong indicator of water quality and pollution levels [34]. A slight variation is observed in the pH values in the water among the seasons of monsoon and post-monsoon. The pH level of water is found highest (8.84 ± 0.42; 8.79 ± 0.17) in monsoon for JS and GS, and lowest in pre-monsoon (7.37 ± 0.15) at GS as shown in Fig. 3. As the pH level rises, the toxicity of other compounds rises as well. Turbidity is an essential element that controls light penetration inside the water and impacts aquatic life [35].

3
The highest turbidity levels were found (15.2 ± 1.82 NTU) in PoM and Mon (10 ± 1.80 NTU)in JS and GS, respectively, and the lowest (6 ± 1.11 NTU) in PrM season at GS as shown in Fig. 3. According to CPCB and BIS [6,9], the desired turbidity limit in water is 1 NTU, with the flexibility of up to 5 NTU. As a result, turbidity levels in the water in both JS and GS are significantly higher than the permissible limit during all seasons. Turbidity substantially impacts the growth rate of algae and other aquatic plants in the natural spring because it reduces the amount of light penetration for photosynthesis. A high conductivity value means more dissolved ions in the water, which improves the water's ability to conduct electricity. One of the most significant factors is conductivity, telling us how much-dissolved substances, chemicals, and minerals are present in the water. The EC levels were found to be highest during the Monsoon period, i.e., 243 ± 15.80; 241 ± 9.27 µ/cm in JS and GS respectively and lowest (193 ± 9.3 µ/cm) in PrM season as shown in Fig. 4. The EC levels are obtained within the acceptable limit (max.) of 300 µ/cm as per BIS [6] guidelines.
TDS is a significant indicator indicating that the water test is bitter, salty, or brackish. The salinity of the spring water is characterized by EC and TDS [34].The highest TDS level was recorded (261 ± 29.37 mg L −1 ) at JS during the Mon period and lowest (99 ± 5.05 mg L −1 ) in PrM at GS as shown in Fig. 4. The desirable limit (max.) of 500 mg L −1 prescribed by BIS [6] is within the acceptable limit at JS and GS.
The principal ions that cause hardness in water are divalent cations such as calcium, magnesium, and strontium. Mentioned in the Table 3. Since strontium is rarely found in concentrations greater than 1 or 2 mg L −1 , calcium and magnesium are the most common sources of hardness in virtually all surface waters and most groundwater [4]. TH is the most important indicator for determining water quality for domestic, industrial, and agricultural purposes [3]. The TH value was highest (49.35 ± 2.78 mg L −1 ) during the Monsoon season at JS and lowest (26.7 ± 1.96 mg L −1 ) in PrM at GS, as shown in Fig. 5. The permissible limit (max.) of 300 mg L −1 as prescribed by BIS [6] is acceptable.
DO is essential for the survival of fish and other aquatic animals. Its presence is necessary for maintaining the diversity of all forms of life in water and is primarily determined by the system's oxygen balance for the effect of waste release in a water body [18].The highest DO level was(8.57 ± 0.26; 8.8 ± 0.32 mg L −1 ) during the Monsoon period at JS and GS and lowest in PrM (5.55 ± 0.28 mg L −1 ) at GS as shown in Fig. 5. The acceptable limit of DO (min.) is 6 mg L −1 as prescribed by Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and BIS [6,9].The results show that the DO levels in the water at all seasons are adequate (Table 4).
Furthermore, it is unsatisfactory in the pre-monsoon season as the value is determined to be even lower than the minimum acceptable limit. Again, BOD is an essential indicator of water quality. Low BOD is primarily due to high algal productivity and increased oxygen solubility at low temperatures. The high organic matter and high BOD values are caused by the direct discharge of untreated domestic waste, dead leaves, and soil erosion into the mountain spring. The study obtained that the highest BOD was found (6.8 ± 0.22; 6.11 ± 0.58 mg L −1 ) in the PoM period and lowest found (3.23 ± 0.18; 3.51 ± 0.20 mg L −1 ) during PrM at JS and GS site as shown in Fig. 5. According to the CPCB and BIS [6,9] recommendations, the BOD levels should not exceed 3.0 mg L −1 . The BOD values are successively high in water samples at all seasons.
High Ca 2+ values indicate the presence of carbonate rocks (limestone) and sedimentary rocks [21]. The Ca 2+ value was found highest (21.5 ± 2.15 mg L −1 ) during Monsoon at GS and lowest (12.4 ± 1.37 mg L −1 ) in PrM season at JS as shown in Fig. 6. All values are acceptable within the limit of the permissible limit (max.) of 75 mg L −1 as prescribed by BIS [6] and WHO [40]. The variation between the two sites might be due to soil weathering and Jhum farming practices.
Magnesium values indicate that magnesium sulphate and hydro carbonates have a higher solubility than equivalent calcium compounds favoring an increase in magnesium concentration in the spring water [21].The highest Mg 2+ was recorded (7.03 ± 0.61 mg L −1 ) during Monsoon at JS and lowest (3.90 ± 0.8 mg L −1 ) in PrM season at GS as shown in Fig. 6. The acceptable limit (max.) is 30 mg L −1 as prescribed by BIS [6] and WHO [40]. Thus Mg 2+ is within the permissible limit. The Chloride (Cl) value was highest (24.5 ± 1.52 mg L −1 ) in Monsoon at JS and lowest (15.7 ± 1.08 mg L −1 ) at GS, as shown in Fig. 7. According to the BIS [6], the acceptable limit of Chloride (max.) is 250 mg L −1 . At the same time, the WHO [40] states that the desirable limit is 200 mg L −1 . The NO − 3 N value was found highest (4.35 ± 0.74 mg L −1 ) during Monsoon at JS and lowest (1.15 ± 0.32 mg L −1 ) in PrM season at GS, as shown in Fig. 7. According to the BIS [6], the acceptable limit (max.) is 45 mg L −1 , while the desirable limit (max.) of 50 mg L −1 prescribed by WHO [40]. Thus, all the values are within the permissible limit. Nitrite (NO 2 − N) and phosphate (PO 4 2− P) are the primary causes of the spring basin's poor water quality and aquatic habitat degradation.   [14]. Excessive nutrition can increase the rate of eutrophication of water, leading to a hypoxia environment, bacterial overgrowth, mortality of the benthic community, and stress on wildlife resources [28]. The PO 4 2− was recorded highest (0.49 ± 0.09 mg L −1 ) during the Monsoon season and lowest    Fig. 7. The values obtained are lower than the acceptable limit, i.e., 0.1 mg L −1 as per the prescribed norm [6,40].

Relationship among water physico-chemical parameters and water quality index (WQI)
The Pearson correlation matrix reveals that the pH is positively correlated with NO 3 (r = 0.993) and PO 4 (r = 0.999). Again, the EC has established a very positive relationship with TDS (r = 0.991), Turbidity (r = 0.983), Ca (r = 0.999), and Mg (r = 0.995). Also, TDS is highly positive correlated with DO (r = 0.999) and Calcium (r = 0.999).

Socioeconomic status
The inhabitants of both the study sites are dependent on spring water for their daily activities. Water dries up in most post-monsoon and pre-monsoon seasons, making them completely reliant. As per the respondents of the study area, water conservation is critical because the source of spring water in the mountain region dries up, and the people are facing a crisis for drinking water. However, the people of JS use 65% of spring water, 18% of Nala, and 17% of tap water. When there is no available tap water, every people use spring water. In GS, 73% of spring water is used by local people, nala (9%), and tap water (18%). Thus, during the survey, it was found that the maximum number of inhabitants of the area is dependent on the spring water. The result shows that the GS is more functional than the JS (Fig. 9).

Water quality of spring ecosystem
The results showed that spring water's pH, BOD, turbidity, and Phosphate values are recorded lower than other reported water bodies of Tripura. The pH value showed that both the study sites' water quality is primarily alkaline in the Monsoon season due to washing animals, clothes, utensils, bathing, and weathering soil. Ghosh et al. [15] also reported the same activity in their study sites. Again, high BOD levels in spring sites could be attributed to the massive discharge of organic matter into the spring from various sources such as carrying manure through runoff, plant decay, dead leaves, Jhum farming practices, sedimentary rocks, and household items, among others, increasing the number of decomposed materials in the water. High BOD level recorded in PoM season in both the sites. It could be mainly attributed to the excessive growth BOD values are typically lower in systems with high rates of respiration and organic decomposition than in systems with increased rates of photosynthesis; in an aquatic body, temperature also plays a role in deciding dissolved oxygen [22]. Thus, the high turbidity level found in all the seasons could be attributed to the increasing anthropogenic activity surrounding the spring observed in the study period. Turbidity reduces transparency caused by particulate matter such as clay or silt, finely divided organic materials, plankton, and other microscopic creatures in any water sample [39]. Studies have shown that turbidity values are higher each season, influenced by sediments, sand, tiny inorganic and organic matter, algae, dissolved pigments, and microscopic organisms. The primary source of phosphorus is household sewage, agricultural runoff, and Jhum farming practices affecting the spring water quality. Chakravarty et al. [8] reported that forest management practices are primarily responsible for excessive phosphate concentrations in water bodies. The high amount of phosphate indicates increased pollution loads and impacts the eutrophication of aquatic life in the water [37]. Studies and interviews have also shown that the number of wild fish has decreased in JS and GS, which might be due to ethnographic activity and other reasons. In the present study, land use pattern is essential in determining water quality. Land-use pressure directly affects surface water quality, and land use management is crucial for maintaining adequate surface water quality [32]. The present investigation found better water quality status in the midstream and downstream sites than in the upstream areas, which agreed with previous studies on the Doyang stream in N.E India [5,25]. Following the findings of this study, we discovered that the water quality of the selected springs is comparable to other studies in India, such as the Barkot spring ecosystem at Haridwar and the Himalayan springs of the Kumaun region, in which anthropogenic activities were found to be responsible for degrading the water quality [20,38].
However, some of the parameters mentioned above, such as pH, BOD, Turbidity, and phosphate values, clearly indicate that the water quality in the natural spring is deteriorating. As mentioned earlier, spring water is the primary source for drinking water, agricultural irrigation, and inhabitants in the hilly region of the NE state. Moreover, studies have found that natural spring has become seasonal in most of the hilly areas of Tripura. The result is excessive deforestation, Jhum farming, and land-use conversion. The study also found that the natural spring, the only source of water for some of the ethnic people in the hilly areas, is drying up day by day and that the perennial springs are running out of water. There is not enough technology to conserve spring water in the hilly region. The survey found that various water-borne diseases such as typhoid, hepatitis, dysentery, diarrhea, malaria, skin itching, and infections occur every year in the study areas. A large number of tribes are directly affected by these diseases. Malaria and diarrhea are common diseases of this area. Plasmodium falciparum is the most common infection (> 90 percent); the remaining 10 percent is responsible for Plasmodium vivax [11]. However, the study obtained that Pre-monsoon is the best season at all sites in terms of water quality of spring water. Studies have shown that the water quality index in both JS and GS places is good in the Premonsoon season as it is the ideal time for harvesting from the Jhum field in that season, and it is estimated that there is no erosion during that time.

Policy intervention
At the global level, water security is in enormous debate. Many mountain states in India continue to dry up. Different states also take steps to pull strings together to revive their springs, which are the only water source for the nearby inhabitants. For dry-up spring, the value of available Physico-chemical parameters alters from their normal range, primarily affecting public health. These need the policymaker's attention to think about spring rejuvenation and general health. Indian Constitution describes the 'Right to Life' in a very explicit way under the fundamental right. Furthermore, the directive principle of state policy provides power to the state to implement policy, where lack of policy implementation leads to constant fatalities on the health of the inhabitants. To ensure that water is used efficiently, appropriately distributed, managed sustainably, governed transparently, and contributing to the overall health and well-being of the citizens, the water policy should stipulate all of these qualities. All these qualities ensure the right to clean water [15]. The Apex court has also interpreted it, including the fundamental right to pollution-free water. The two keystone objectives in the state's creative principle, mentioned in Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP), are (i) to enhance the general health of the citizens (Article 47) and (ii) to safeguard the natural environment (Article 48A).
Further, environmental conservation and enhancement have been declared a requirement in the constitution [Art. 51A (g)]. According to enumerated powers, those expressly granted to the government by the Constitution are called sovereign, while those implied but not specified are called administrative (including water pollution). In pursuance of that Indian Government enacted the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (commonly referred to as the "the Water Act") legislatures in compliance with Article 252 of the Constitution. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Rules, issued in 1975, support the goals of the Water Act, which supports the conservation and preservation of water sustainably.
However, the Water Act implementation application in the district of Dhalai is lacking. The initiative taken by the Ministry of Jal Shakti has also not been adequately ensured because of the reason more fatalities are seen every year for this particular region. The Ministry of Jal Shakti came up with a draft bill in 2016 to ensure the right to water for life. The bill's prime agenda is standard water quality and planning for future water security. In Supreme Court, a "public interest litigation" petition was filed under Article 32 of the Constitution of India, which was done by MC Mehta, a leading Environment lawyer. Because of the Supreme Court's decision, Absolute Liability was introduced as a replacement for Strict Liability. Water is one of the essential natural resources globally, but it is also under tremendous pressure. This is why we need a national legal framework that sets out the principles for protecting, conserving, and managing this resource, as well as for regulating and managing water use at all levels of government as well as water-related actions by citizens and their organizations as well as public and private institutions of all kinds. The preservation of spring ecosystems must be balanced with the advancement of human development, which can regulate the Dhalai district public health's constant fatalities due to water-borne diseases. By implementing a spring ecosystem rejuvenation policy in this Dhalai district of the NE region, the population's livelihood can be improved, and climate change also is controlled.

Conclusion
This mountain range possesses a plentiful water supply, but getting to it is difficult due to its remoteness. Many people believe that replenishing the water supply for rural populations, such as those who live in mountainous regions of the Northeast, is best done by re-creating traditional water sources, such as spring waters in the mountainous areas. It will be possible to develop a solution to the practical water problem, and when that strategy is put in place, it will solve the water problem for the people through rejuvenation of the spring ecosystem. The protection and restoration of the springshed can ensure water security for the NE region. As settling the research objectives, it was observed that the present situation for both the spring impact to the livelihood is enormous to that locality. The physicochemical parameters that affect humans and aquatic life need immediate efforts to rectify through proper regulation. Maintaining a safe distance from human activity and clearly defining the borders of the springshed is essential to preventing contamination. Some anthropogenic factors are responsible for the deaths of springs that need to be controlled by implementing a proper spring ecosystem rejuvenation policy. These regulations or policies can sustainably save the springs. To be specific on regulation, the local administration, with the help of local inhabitants, needs to create awareness for better use of spring as well as it is also expected that the more significant violation which hampers spring ecosystem directly needs to have a stringent legal sanctioned which will help to prohibit the violators. All stakeholders must work together to succeed in spring restoration and protect from drying. The dependency on spring in the NE region is most significant for the communities living nearby the spring areas. Communities should know about the significance of preserving their water resources and be willing to be in charge of maintaining the spring ecosystem.