Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Rethinking urban density through the Chicago experience: a socio-ecological practice approach

  • Perspective Essay
  • Published:
Socio-Ecological Practice Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Today, many significant factors, including massive globalization, rapid urban population increase, intense urban regeneration, extensive agglomeration, soaring land prices, and a dire need for land preservation, among others, force cities to build upward. However, many cities lack the experience of integrating vertical density into their urban landscape. Within the socio-ecological practice framework, this perspective essay explains and illustrates recent project examples from the City of Chicago. They constitute an extraordinary leap in retrofitting aging urban infrastructure, balancing the horizontal plane with the vertical one, and harmonizing nature with the urban environment. The paper proposes an innovative “eco-density” theoretical framework to improve understanding of Chicago’s spatial structure and socio-ecological experience.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Source: aerial photograph courtesy of Google Earth (color figure online)

Fig. 2

Photograph by author

Fig. 3

Photograph by author

Fig. 4

Photograph by author

Fig. 5

Photograph by author

Fig. 6

Photograph by author

Fig. 7

Photograph by author

Fig. 8

Photograph by author

Fig. 9

Source: City of Chicago

Fig. 10

Top photograph by author; bottom, City of Chicago

Fig. 11
Fig. 12

Photograph by author

Fig. 13

Photograph by author

Fig. 14

Photograph by author

Fig. 15

Photograph by author

Fig. 16

Source: Lurie Garden

Fig. 17

Source: City of Chicago

Fig. 18

Source: Aerial photograph courtesy of Google Earth

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Source: CTBUH Skyscraper Center, https://www.skyscrapercenter.com/.

  2. Proposed

    When a building fulfills all the following criteria, it earns the “proposed” title as follows:

    1.The project has a specific site, an owner, and a developer who are seriously interested in executing the project.

    2.The professional design and planning team has passed the conceptual design stage of the project and are progressing toward completing construction drawings.

    3.The project has obtained construction permission or in the process to do so.

    4.The announcement of the “proposed” building comes from a credible source.

    Source: CTBUH Skyscraper Center, https://www.skyscrapercenter.com/.

  3. Visionary

    A building project earns this title when it meets one of the following three criteria:

    1.A project idea that does not fulfill the “proposed” criteria mentioned above (the four conditions of a “proposed” project).

    2.A “proposed” project that developers could not advance to the construction stage, or

    3.A project idea whom architects conceived to be an inspirational proposition.

    Source: CTBUH Skyscraper Center, https://www.skyscrapercenter.com/.

  4. Ecologists consider an FQI above 35 to be “natural area” quality.

  5. Renowned scholars have applied Lynch’s theory to landscape ecology (e.g., Annie Palone and Carl Steinitz). However, none has engaged the topic of tall buildings in their studies.

  6. “Nothing captures the scope and scale of McHarg’s legacy better than his landmark book, Design With Nature, published in the spring of 1969. It remains one of the best-selling books ever written by a designer, has been translated into Chinese, French, Italian, Japanese, and Spanish, and remains in print today” (Fleming et al. 2019).

  7. Lynch’s the Image of the City book has been most influential. It has been translated to about 15 languages; and “was recently in its 37th printing and has sold close to 250,000 copies in English, a testament to its popularity” (Banerjee et al. 2018, p. 214).

References

  • Alaghmandan M, Elnimeiri M, Krawayk R, Buelow PV (2016) Modifying tall building form to reduce the alongwind effect’. CTBUH J 2:34–39

    Google Scholar 

  • Alexander C, Ishikawa S, Silverstein M (1977) A pattern language: towns, buildings, construction. Oxford University Press, New York City

    Google Scholar 

  • Alexander C, Neis H, Anninou A, King I (1987) A new theory of urban design. Oxford University Press, New York City

    Google Scholar 

  • Ali MM (2020) The bridge: joining east-west nations and cultures while treading life’s difficult path. https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/52578746-the-bridge

  • Ali MM, Moon KS (2007) Structural developments in tall buildings: current trends and future prospects. Archit Sci Rev 50(3):205–223

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Kodmany K (2014) Green retrofitting skyscrapers: a review. Buildings 4(4):683–710. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings4040683

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Kodmany K (2017) Understanding tall buildings: a theory of placemaking. Routledge, London

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Kodmany K (2018) The vertical city: a sustainable development model. WIT Press, Southampton

    Google Scholar 

  • Assmuth T, Chen X, Degeling C et al (2019) Integrative concepts and practices of health in transdisciplinary social ecology. Socio Ecol Pract Res. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42532-019-00038-y

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baker W, James P, Tomlinson R, Weiss T (2009) Case study: trump International Hotel and Tower. CTBUH J 3:16–22

    Google Scholar 

  • Baldridge S (2019) Affordable high-rise workforce housing: essential to the future of cities. Ctbuh.org/papers

  • Banerjee T, Hack G, Southworth M (2018) Introduction to the special issue. J Am Plan Assoc 84(3–4):214–216. https://doi.org/10.1080/01944363.2018.1526102

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boake T (2017) Unpacking composite construction: global trends. Ctbuh.org.edu

  • Bosch J (2008) A view from the river: the Chicago architecture foundation river cruise. Pomegranate Communications Portland, OR

  • Bruegmann R (2012) Art Robert Deco Chicago: designing modern America. Yale University Press, New Haven

    Google Scholar 

  • Bryant MM, Turner JS (2019) From thermodynamics to creativity: McHarg’s ecological planning theory and its implications for resilience planning and adaptive design. Socio Ecol Pract Res 1:325–337. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42532-019-00027-1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burden D (2014) The power of walkability, Blue Zones, November 18. https://www.bluezones.com/2014/11/power-walkability/. Accessed 5 May 2020

  • Calthorpe P (1993) The next American metropolis: ecology, community, and the American dream. Princeton Architectural Press, New York City

    Google Scholar 

  • Chicago City Hall. https://www.greenroofs.com/projects/chicago-city-hall/. Accessed 5 May 2020

  • City of Chicago. https://www.chicago.gov/city/en.html. Accessed 5 May 2020

  • Condit CW (1988) The two centuries of technical evolution underlying the Skyscraper. In: Beedle LS (ed) Second century of the Skyscraper. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, pp 11–24

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • CTBUH Skyscraper Center. https://www.skyscrapercenter.com/. Accessed 5 May 2020

  • Cullen G (1996) The concise townscape. The Architecture Press, Boston

    Google Scholar 

  • DeLuca A, Foster J (2019) Hanging out with Façade inspectors. CTBUH J Issue III, 54–56

  • Dovey K, Pafka E (2016) Urban density matters: but what does it actually mean? CityMetric, July. https://www.citymetric.com/fabric/urban-density-matters-what-does-it-actually-mean-2118

  • Duany A, Speck J, Lydon M (2009) The smart growth manual. McGraw-Hill, New York. ISBN 0-07-137675-5

    Google Scholar 

  • Dutton R, Isyumov N (1990) Reduction of tall building motion by aerodynamic treatments. J Wind Eng Ind Aerodyn 36(2):739–747

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dyja TL (2014) The third coast: when Chicago built the American dream. Penguin, New York City

    Google Scholar 

  • Ehrenhalt A (2013) The great inversion and the future of the American City. Vintage, New York City

    Google Scholar 

  • Farbstein J (2009) Urban transformation: Rudy Bruner award for urban excellence, Bruner Foundation, Inc. http://www.brunerfoundation.org/rba/pdfs/2009/2009_Urban%20Transformation.pdf. Accessed 5 May 2020

  • Fathy H (1969) Architecture for the poor. University of Chicago Press, Chicago

    Google Scholar 

  • Fleming F, Steiner W, Whitaker K, M’Closkey R, Weller R (2019) How Ian McHarg taught generations to ‘design with nature’. https://www.citylab.com/perspective/2019/06/landscape-architecture-design-with-nature-ian-mcharg-books/590029/. Accessed 5 May 2020

  • Flint CG, Dean KT, Yang B et al (2019) Socio-scientific research and practice: evaluating outcomes from a transdisciplinary urban water systems project. Socio Ecol Pract Res 1:55. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42532-019-00007-5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gehl J (2010) Cities for people. Island Press, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Ghosh SK, Fanella DA, Liang X (2005) Seismic and wind design of concrete buildings. International Code Council, Country Club Hills

    Google Scholar 

  • Giachetti A, Gianni B (2019) Wind effects on permeable tall building envelopes: issues and potentialities. CTBUH J Issue III, 20–27

  • Gilfoyle TJ (2006) Millennium Park: creating a Chicago landmark. University of Chicago Press, Chicago

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldstein E, Salvia M (2019) Eliminate the “Void Loophole”? CTBUH J Issue III. Ctbuh.org/papers

  • Grange J, Savage O (2018) A vertical transportation analytical tool for the construction of tall buildings. CTBUH J 2018 Issue III, 20–25

  • Gregory R (2003) Wind sock. Archit Rev 214(3):69–73

    Google Scholar 

  • Hack G (2019) Site planning. MIT Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Hadjisophocleous GV, Noureddine B (1999) Performance criteria used in fire safety design. Autom Constr 8(2):489–501

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hanson S, Callone M (2019) Chicago Riverwalk, phases 2 and 3 methods. Landscape performance series. Landscape Architecture Foundation. https://doi.org/10.31353/cs1501

  • Hill L (2019) The Chicago River: a natural and unnatural history. Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale

    Google Scholar 

  • Hlushko A (2004) Mechanical, electrical, and fire protection design, building security: handbook for architectural planning and design. McGraw-Hill, New York, pp 23.1–23.15

    Google Scholar 

  • Hunt B, DeVries JB (2017) Planning Chicago. Routledge, London

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Isner MS, Klem TJ (1993) Fire investigation: report on the world trade center explosion and fire

  • Jacobs J (1961) The death and life of great American cities. Random House, New York City

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson EW (2006) Chicago metropolis 2020: The Chicago plan for the twenty-first century. The University of Chicago Press Chicago, Chicago

    Google Scholar 

  • Kamin B (2001) Why architecture matters: lessons from Chicago. The University of Chicago press, Chicago

    Google Scholar 

  • Katz S (2020) Bringing an icon into the future: Willis Tower. CTBUH Research Paper. Ctbuh.org/papers

  • Kinney J (2016) Chicago River gets 600 feet of floating gardens. Next city. November. https://nextcity.org/daily/entry/chicago-river-floating-wetlands-600-feet?gclid=CjwKCAiAu9vwBRAEEiwAzvjq-1Zl--HqmJdQ_B1ZMaC3iMfNjetKAH4Tnv_4CH0WGlB4Est4aPcquxoCtDIQAvD_BwE. Accessed 5 May 2020

  • Kostof S (1991) The city shaped: urban patterns and meanings through history. Little, Brown and Company, New York City

    Google Scholar 

  • Kunstler JK, Salingaros NA (2001) The end of tall buildings, Planetizen, September 17. https://www.planetizen.com/node/27. Accessed 5 May 2020

  • Liao KH (2019) The socio-ecological practice of building blue-green infrastructure in high-density cities: what does the ABC waters program in Singapore tell us? Socio Ecol Pract Res 1:67–81

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lurie Garden. https://www.luriegarden.org/about/. Accessed 5 May 2020

  • Lynch K (1960) The image of the city. MIT Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Lynch K (1981) A theory of good city form. MIT Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Meacham BJ, Johann MA (2007) Extreme event mitigation in buildings: analysis and design. National Fire Protection Association, Quincy

    Google Scholar 

  • Mumford L (1961) The city in history: its origins, its transformations, and its prospects. Harcourt, Brace & World, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Nasar J (1998) The evaluative image of the city. Sage Publications, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Nawy EG, Scanlon A (eds) (1992) Designing concrete structures for serviceability and safety, SP-133. American Concrete Institute, Detroit, MI

    Google Scholar 

  • NEHRP (2002) Recommended provisions for seismic regulation for new buildings and other structures. Building Seismic Safety Council, Washington DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Nelson (2019) What micro-mapping a city’s density reveals. CITYLAB. July, https://www.citylab.com/perspective/2019/07/urban-density-map-city-population-data-geography/591760/. Accessed 5 May 2020

  • Perez RIP, Rabunal JR, Garcia-Vidaurrazaga R (2019) Using AI to simulate urban vertical growth. CTBUH J Issue III, 44–51

  • PUB (2018) Active, beautiful, clean waters design guidelines, 4th edn. Singapore Publishing, PUB

    Google Scholar 

  • Rapoport A (1997) Human aspects of urban forms. Pergamon Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Riley R (2017) The Camaro in the pasture: speculations on the cultural landscape of America. The University of Virginia Press, Fairfax

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenbloom S (2018) Letter from the editor. J Am Plan Assoc 84(3–4):213. https://doi.org/10.1080/01944363.2018.1529464

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sanner J, Snapp T, Fernandez A, Weihing D, Foster R, Ramage M (2017) River Beach Tower: a taller timber experiment. CTBUH Journal, Issue II, 40–46

  • Sanoff H (1991) Visual research methods in design. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York City

    Google Scholar 

  • Schueller W (1996) The design of building structures. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs

    Google Scholar 

  • Schumacher P (2017) High intensity urban order. CTBUH 2016 conference proceedings, pp 123–131

  • Smith CS (2006) The plan of Chicago: Daniel Burnham and the remaking of the American City. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Southworth M (2011) Beyond placelessness: place identity and the global city. In: Banerjee T, Loukaitou-Sideris A (eds) Companion to urban design. Routledge, New York City, pp 495–509

    Google Scholar 

  • Speck J (2013) Walkable city: how downtown can save America one step at a time. North Point Press, New York City

    Google Scholar 

  • Steiner F (2019) Toward an ecological aesthetic. Socio Ecol Pract Res 1:39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42532-019-00008-4

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Talen E (2009) Urban design reclaimed: tools, techniques, and strategies for planners. American Planning Association, Planners Press, Chicago

    Google Scholar 

  • Talen E (2018) Neighborhood. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Trabucco D (2020) Robotics in construction: the next 50 years. CTBUH 2019 10th world congress, pp 269–274

  • Waldheim C (2016) Landscape urbanism, a general theory. Princeton University, Princeton Press, Princeton

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Weidemann S, Anderson J (1979) Resident heterogeneity in multifamily housing: a source of conflict in space, housing research and development program. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana-Champaign

    Google Scholar 

  • Wong MS, Hassel R, Yeo A (2016) Garden city, megacity: rethinking cities for the age of global warming. Ctbuh.org/papers

  • Wood B (2014) Empirically evaluating the livability of local neighborhoods and global cities. CTBUH J 2017 Issue IV, 40–47

  • Xiang WN (2019) Ecopracticology: the study of socio-ecological practice. Socio Ecol Pract Res. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42532-019-00006-6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yang B (2019) Landscape performance evaluation in socio-ecological practice: current status and prospects. Socio Ecol Pract Res. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42532-019-00039-x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yeang K, Powell R (2007) Designing the ecoskyscraper: premises for tall building design. Struct Des Tall Build 16:411–427

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The author would like to deeply thank the journal’s reviewers for useful feedback. Great thanks are also due to the journal Editor-in-Chief, Professor Wei-Ning Xiang, and Guest Editor, Professor Xinhao Wang, for helpful directions, detailed comments, and encouragement to revise and resubmit the paper. The author would like to sincerely thank both professors for invitation to present the paper in the Tongji-GLUT (Guilin University of Technology) advanced lecture conference that was held in Guilin, China in May 17–19, 2019. Further, I would like to thank Professor Greg Lyndsey and Professor Jachna Timothy for insightful comments on the presentation.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Urban Planning and Policy, College of Urban Planning and Public Affairs, University of Illinois at Chicago, CUPPA Hall, Chicago, IL, 60607, USA

    Kheir Al-Kodmany

Authors
  1. Kheir Al-Kodmany
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kheir Al-Kodmany.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Al-Kodmany, K. Rethinking urban density through the Chicago experience: a socio-ecological practice approach. Socio Ecol Pract Res 2, 131–147 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42532-020-00050-7

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s42532-020-00050-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation